- Part two -
In the first four hundred years of the Christian era, the migration of peoples and the wars they waged formed the basis on which the entire social, political and military structure of medieval Europe was subsequently built, and yet most people know very little about them. Hooligans are now called "Goths" and "Vandals", and the term "Gothic" is used in architecture, although it has nothing to do with the tribe, which completely disappeared 500 years before this style arose.
The Romans of the period of the decline of the empire began to use the names of these tribes in a derogatory sense, frightened by the constant defeats inflicted on them by people, on the whole, much better than modern barbarians, albeit devoid of urban gloss. It is quite natural that the sophisticated and pampered city dwellers, accustomed to pomp, luxury and idleness, shunned ill-mannered "savages", but it is also true that by the beginning of the decline of the Roman Empire they could no longer do without these people. Most of the imperial army did not consist of indigenous people, but precisely of these Goths, vandals and others, and the Romans did not even always occupy command posts - a situation that would have been completely unthinkable before. The lazy townspeople did not want to expose themselves to the hardships of military life - and this was one of the reasons whythat domination gradually passed into the hands of more energetic and less spoiled people, albeit deprived of the metropolitan gloss that their opponents retained, despite the fact that Rome was declining.
The Goths are a great and courageous people who originated in the north (possibly in southern Sweden). After living for twelve generations, or 300 years, in the plains of Central Europe and Southern Russia, and their numbers increased greatly, the Goths finally broke the power of the Roman Empire in the west, using methods of warfare and tactics that were basically similar to those of the medieval knights. … It is still unknown if they belonged to the same race as the Anglo-Saxons, who at the time were moving westward into Britain, while everyone else migrated south. Some evidence supports this theory, some disprove it, but overall, this is a question that has yet to be clarified.
The period of the Great Migration was usually called the "dark ages". Historically, they certainly were (in the sense that little is known about this period), but in recent years a lot of light has been shed on the mysteries of that time, mainly due to archaeological research. To some extent, the unknown was caused by the works of Roman historians, who so brilliantly illuminated the deeds of their world that all events outside it, of course, were in pitch darkness. On the other hand, the wild peoples surrounding the empire were not in such a hurry to leave their written testimonies - mostly oral folklore, legends passed from mouth to mouth, but not recorded anywhere. But even in this case, if the historians of the XIX century. had sharp enough eyesight, they would pay attentionthat classical writers (from Tacitus in 70-80 BC and ending with Procopius in the mid-500s) could tell something about the barbarians who lived in Xover from the borders of the empire. They themselves were not completely dumb, and although most of the folk tales did not survive, some survived and became available for research, such as the Elder and Younger Edda or the Norse sagas. Unfortunately, just like the stories of Homer, they were considered exclusively as fairy tales, and again, both after Schliemann's discoveries, the reality of the events described in the Iliad was confirmed, and the richest Scandinavian finds proved that most of the Norse legends are based on real facts. Since it is recognized,it became possible to compare this information with the comments of Greek and Roman writers and thus get a clearer picture of what was happening. Now the "dark ages" are illuminated by an ever-increasing number of lights, many of them still dim, but others are exceptionally bright, the brightest of all are those related to discoveries in art and war: two areas that are closely related. It is the material evidence of art and war that live the longest: clothes and household utensils are crumbled to dust under the influence of time, the way of life is radically changing, and old traditions are forgotten so much that sometimes even the slightest trace of them does not remain. At the same time, works of art - statues, jewelry, drawings on pottery and other things of the same kind - are much better preserved than anything else,- with the exception of weapons. His life is exceptionally long - a good sword or helmet is passed down from generation to generation, who take good care of them and do not allow them to rust or deteriorate. Over time, when the product ends up in the ground, peat or at the bottom of a river, it can still remain practically intact, if conditions are even a little favorable for it. Therefore, archaeologists dealing with the history of weapons, in most cases, can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian. His life is exceptionally long - a good sword or helmet is passed down from generation to generation, who take good care of them and do not allow them to rust or deteriorate. Over time, when the product ends up in the ground, peat or at the bottom of a river, it can still remain practically intact, if conditions are even a little favorable for it. Therefore, archaeologists dealing with the history of weapons, in most cases, can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian. His life is exceptionally long - a good sword or helmet is passed down from generation to generation, who take good care of them and do not allow them to rust or deteriorate. Over time, when the product is buried in the ground, peat, or at the bottom of a river, it can still remain practically intact, if conditions are even a little favorable. Therefore, archaeologists dealing with the history of weapons, in most cases, can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian.when the product is buried in the ground, peat, or at the bottom of a river, it can still remain practically intact, if conditions are even a little favorable. Therefore, archaeologists dealing with the history of weapons, in most cases, can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian.when the product is buried in the ground, peat, or at the bottom of a river, it can still remain practically intact, if conditions are even a little favorable. Therefore, archaeologists dealing with the history of weapons, in most cases, can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian.in most cases, they can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian.in most cases, they can use genuine material to confirm their theories and get at least one or two samples that are familiar to them from the records of historians, drawings or fragments of statues. This complementary link between art as such and the art of warfare is of great value to the research historian.
Before I move on to a detailed description of the factors associated with this period, an attempt should be made to give a cursory sketch of the geography of the Great Nations Migration. Chronologically, our history is divided into two parts - before our era and after. This subdivision in general has an exclusively religious significance, since it is associated with an event that, no matter how amazing it may be, relates only and exclusively to Christianity. The Romans counted the time in their own way, measuring it from the date of the city's foundation, the Muslims have their own chronology, the Jews have their own, and, perhaps, the most ancient and best preserved. Nevertheless, it is entirely by accident that the chronology that Christians adhere to can be viewed in a much broader sense. During the century when Christ was born (i.e., from 50 BC to 50 AD). The ancient world was in ruins and gradually began to acquire a hazy image of a new form. Thus, starting from the Christian chronology, we can very well imagine a turning point in the history of mankind, not only from the point of view of religion (its true meaning became clear much later than the period that we will talk about now), but also from the point of view global cataclysms that shook Europe during the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.starting from the Christian chronology, we can very well imagine a turning point in the history of mankind, not only from the point of view of religion (its true meaning became clear much later than the period that we will talk about now), but also from the point of view of global cataclysms, which shook Europe during the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.starting from the Christian chronology, we can very well imagine a turning point in the history of mankind, not only from the point of view of religion (its true meaning became clear much later than the period that we will talk about now), but also from the point of view of global cataclysms, which shook Europe during the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.we can very well imagine a turning point in the history of mankind, not only from the point of view of religion (its true meaning became clear much later than the period that we will talk about now), but also from the point of view of global cataclysms that shook Europe during the collapse Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.we can very well imagine a turning point in the history of mankind, not only from the point of view of religion (its true meaning became clear much later than the period that we will talk about now), but also from the point of view of global cataclysms that shook Europe during the collapse Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.which shook Europe during the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.which shook Europe during the collapse of the Roman Empire and the formation of new states on its ruins. Of course, since this process did not take place in a very peaceful way, it gave a powerful impetus to the development of the art of warfare and, as a result, the emergence of new modifications of weapons, so that in the process of research like ours, it should not be neglected.
Speaking very broadly, in the 1st century. BC e. the situation was as follows: the Mediterranean and most of the Middle East almost entirely belonged to Rome. Carthage was destroyed, North Africa and Spain became Roman provinces, and Greece lost the last vestiges of its independence. The civilization of Egypt with its 3000-year history was in the last stage of decay, the country was ruled by weak rulers from a dynasty founded by the most capable commander of Alexander the Great - Ptolemy. Unfortunately, his descendants did not adopt the abilities of the conqueror's faithful companion and, as a result, were under the strongest influence of Rome. Babylon and Assyria no longer existed, and even the once mighty Persia was in decline.
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To the north of the borders of the empire lay the desert lands of Central Europe, inhabited by the Celts, just like Gaul and Britain. Although these militant, highly civilized people were not politically connected with each other, their tribes formed something like an empire, parts of which, however, were weakly connected with each other. Gaul and Helvetia were the heart of this state. To the north and east of Gaul, along the right bank of the Rhine, were wild, aggressive and mysterious Germanic tribes. Further to the north and east, other peoples lived, which were separated from Rome by the vast expanses and forests of Germany and about which the Romans knew nothing. However, four hundred years later, they were to get to know the descendants of these people too well.
This was the state of affairs by 58 BC. e., when a whole people called the Helvetians (one of the most civilized and influential tribes of Gaul) decided to leave their native lands. We have met with this people before. These are the very people among whom the La Tene culture originated and who, as can be assumed, were the main manufacturers and suppliers of weapons and metal products in the Celtic world. This movement gave rise to those events that ended after the conquest of Gaul by Julius Desar.
In turn, it opened the gates to the tribes who slowly moved into the plains of Central Europe; after the submission of Gaul, the not too tightly united empire of the Celtic tribes began to crumble, because this country was its heart. Now the Romans owned the land along the entire Rhine and stood face to face with the Germans, these primitive and cruel people whose only occupation was war. On the Danube, the Romans met with other tribes, the Alans and Sarmatians: semi-nomadic horse-breeding peoples who inherited the lands that were previously occupied by the Scythians. Thanks to their craft, these people were excellent riders, accustomed to fighting while sitting in the saddle on horseback (remember that the Romans mainly relied on their foot legionnaires). Thus, in this direction there was nothing to expect an easy and rapid expansion of the empire's borders.
Then, while Gaul flourished under Roman rule, becoming wealthier and more civilized, the Austrian and South Germanic Celts also decided to move west to enjoy the comfort and prosperity that their kin enjoyed. These warriors enlisted in the Roman army, joining the Gallic legions. Thus, a kind of power vacuum has formed in the center of Europe. Meanwhile, while these events were taking place, the northern peoples slowly moved forward. A tribe calling itself the Burgundians occupied the territory in the south of the Baltic, against the island of Burgundarholm (now we call it Bornholm). A little to the east, another tribe settled, the Lombards (seven centuries later, we will still meet them in France and Northern Italy). Usually the name "Lombards" is decoded as "long-beard" (long beards), but it is more likely thatthat it means "long ax", just as "halbard" (halberd) can mean "flat ax" [6]. At a time when most barbarians wore long beards (after all, the word itself means "bearded"), it is much more reasonable to assume that the warlike and conquering tribe named themselves after their favorite weapon. It would be more natural than to include in the name a feature common to all.
In the 1st century. and the Burgundians and Lombards began their movement south, and even farther east, where Danzig is now, the Goths began their long march (it is assumed that they occupied these lands from about 250 BC). This journey in time was to lead them to Italy and Spain, where they broke the absolute domination of Rome and established their style of warfare throughout Europe for a thousand years.
This was the situation in the first half of the 1st century, when the Great Migration of Nations began. The movements in the process were so complex that the only way to get yourself a correct idea of it was to follow the movement of each individual group of tribes, starting with the Anglo-Saxons, who, by their conquest of Britain, did not have much effect on the development of the art of warfare, and ending with the Goths and Lombards. who certainly did so by completely destroying the influence of the Roman Empire in the West. Until the V century. Angles, Saxons and Jutes did not begin to move forward, although by all indications it is clear that a small number of them appeared in Britain long before that. Some Roman authors mention the Saxon raids. For example, Flavius Eutropius writes that the Saxons lived along the coastline and in the marshes of the Great Sea. Later Ammianus Marcellinus,working about 390, says: "The Picts and the Saxons and the Scots constantly harassed the Bretons." Claudian claims that in their raids they went as far as the Orkney Islands. "The land there," he writes, "is wet with the blood of the slain Saxons."
Apparently, the Lombards began their campaign from a country that was slightly east of the Saxons' possessions; they slowly moved southward and practically did not play a role in history until in the VI century. (568) did not settle in Italy, under the leadership of the leader Alboyn. The fact that they were akin to the Angles and the Saxons proves the great similarity of their languages. Even with the most superficial analysis, it is clear that it could not have been accidental; here common roots are clearly traced, and therefore a common origin. Language in general quite often helps to clarify some of the mysteries of history; in this sense, linguistics can come to the aid of history and archeology with some success.
The Franks were the most barbaric and uncouth of all the Teutonic peoples, and they covered the shortest distance in their march. For 250 years they were ruled by the Merovingian dynasty, the bloodiest and weakest of all that ever dishonored the nation, and yet it gave its name to the most beautiful flowers of medieval Europe. During all this time, the Franks posed a much less threat to a crumbling empire than the Goths or Vandals, but in the end, when Charlemagne unified them and created the empire, they defeated and absorbed all other peoples (although by that time both the Goths and vandals have already disappeared from the scene). This was the community of Germanic tribes that Tacitus wrote about. They crossed the Rhine and entered Gaul, following the paths along which the Alemanni, who had broken through the border at that time, had previously made their predatory raids,when Rome's grip has already loosened.
As a matter of fact, it is difficult to compare those Franks who ruled the whole of Europe and gave their name to the greatest state with their rude ancestors. There are two reasons for this: firstly, the original Frankish conquerors of Roman Gaul were relatively few, and soon (after one or two generations) they perfectly mixed with the Roman-Gaulish population, excluding the ruling class, which remained exclusively Teutonic in blood. As a result, the majority of the Franks became more civilized, although the rulers of the Merovingian dynasty remained barbarians in the worst sense of the word. But, despite this, the unworthy dynasty was interrupted and gave way to a completely different family. Its ancestor was Karl Martell, but the one who united almost all of Europe into a single powerful whole was called Charlemagne - Charlemagne, the emperor of the West. Thanks to this remarkable man, the Franks in the VIII century. became a leading force in Europe, but only because Charles combined all that was best in the settlers, Goths and Lombards, and instilled their system of warfare to the traditional Frankish methods. The result was overwhelming - in the end, thanks to the efforts of a single person, a power was formed of such a size that has never existed in Europe. It is difficult for us to imagine such accomplishments in a short period of human life, but nevertheless it was so. If Charlemagne's children were worthy of his name, it is difficult to imagine what the political map of the world would be like in a hundred years. However, the empire actually existed for only one generation - as soon as its founder died, everything returned to normal. Hence,in order to completely change history, the efforts of one person were still not enough.
The Vandals went further than other tribes and for some time were the luckiest of the settlers. We don't know exactly where they came from; Vandals appeared in Northern Germany at about the same time as the Lombards, that is, at the beginning of the 1st century. n. e., and settled near the Oder. They themselves said that they came from Scandinavia, but they lived in the place I mentioned for about four hundred years, or twenty generations - enough time for this place to be considered a homeland. Only at the beginning of the 5th century. n. e. there were reports that the vandals were beginning to move westward. On New Year's Eve, on the night that separated 405 AD. e. from 406, they crossed the Rhine and began their long journey under the leadership of an extremely energetic leader named Geyserich. He led them south through Gaul and Spain to the Mediterranean, part of which still bears the name of this tribe - Andalusia (they lived there for 20 years, from 409 to 429). Then Geyserich, at the head of his people, crossed the Strait of Gibraltar and invaded North Africa, where he conquered the former Roman-Carthaginian province and created an amazing Vandal empire, which soon became as rich and enlightened as Carthage itself, the capital of the ancient Phoenician civilization. Thus, a period comparable to the times of the Vikings began on the Mediterranean, since the Vandals were a nation of sailors and sailed wherever they wanted on their ships, making the same raids as the Vikings later in the north or the barbarian pirates who replaced them on this coast. Soon, their empire became a terrifying force, in 455, seizing and plundering Rome itself. In 553 g.the great general of the emperor Justinian, Belisarius, defeated the Vandals and destroyed their state, after which they disappeared forever from the historical chronicles. However, this name has become a household name and has survived to this day, recalling the horror that these barbarians led to the crumbling world of Rome. It should be noted in parentheses that they did not organize a global massacre, did not destroy local shrines, and generally behaved in such a way that they hardly deserved that the word "vandal" would become synonymous with a rude savage for many centuries. Nevertheless, the fear of the vanquished, increased a hundredfold due to the fact that the Romans were not accustomed to defeats, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City for many years, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.after which they disappeared forever from the historical chronicles. However, this name has become a household name and has survived to this day, recalling the horror that these barbarians led to the crumbling world of Rome. It should be noted in parentheses that they did not organize a global massacre, did not destroy local shrines, and generally behaved in such a way that they hardly deserved that the word "vandal" would become synonymous with a rude savage for many centuries. Nevertheless, the fear of the vanquished, increased a hundredfold due to the fact that the Romans were not accustomed to defeats, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City for many years, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.after which they disappeared forever from the historical chronicles. However, this name has become a household name and has survived to this day, recalling the horror that these barbarians led to the crumbling world of Rome. It should be noted in parentheses that they did not organize a global massacre, did not destroy local shrines, and generally behaved in such a way that they hardly deserved that the word "vandal" became synonymous with a rude savage for many centuries. Nevertheless, the fear of the vanquished, which increased a hundredfold due to the fact that the Romans were not accustomed to defeat, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City for many years, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.which these barbarians led to the crumbling world of Rome. It should be noted in parentheses that they did not organize a global massacre, did not destroy local shrines, and generally behaved in such a way that they hardly deserved that the word "vandal" became synonymous with a rude savage for many centuries. Nevertheless, the fear of the vanquished, which increased a hundredfold due to the fact that the Romans were not accustomed to defeat, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City for many years, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.which these barbarians led to the crumbling world of Rome. It should be noted in parentheses that they did not organize a global massacre, did not destroy local shrines, and generally behaved in such a way that they hardly deserved that the word "vandal" would become synonymous with a rude savage for many centuries. Nevertheless, the fear of the vanquished, increased a hundredfold due to the fact that the Romans were not accustomed to defeats, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City for many years, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.that the Romans were not accustomed to defeat, for many years, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.that the Romans were not accustomed to defeat, for many years, having been convinced of the absolute inviolability of the Eternal City, was imprinted in the figurative meaning of the name of the tribe, which has long disappeared from the face of the earth.
- Part two -
