Resume: Are there genetic traces of the 13th century Mongol conquests in Eastern Europe, the Middle East, the Caucasus and the Balkans? To answer this question, we analyzed the haplogroups of the Y-chromosome of the populations of Eurasia, transmitted through the male line. Genetic markers-indicators of the event "Mongolian conquests of the 13th century" have been formed for the modern populations of Mongols. These are haplogroup C (its frequencies among the Mongols are about 60%) and haplogroups O and D (found among the Mongols with low frequencies). Among Russians, there are carriers of haplogroup C. However, their extremely low number (about 1 per 500 people) indicates that their ancestors were not participants in the event "Mongol conquests of the 13th century" and its consequence - the Mongol-Tatar yoke of the 13-15th centuries. The same applies to Ukrainians, among whom markers-indicators of the event in question have not been identified. Significant frequencies of “Mongolian” markers were found only in 3 European populations - Nogais of Dagestan (C, O and D - 25.0%), Crimean Tatars (C, O and D - 22.7%), Istanbul Turks (C - 4, 5%), as well as in groups of Bashkirs (C and O - 4.0-16.3%) in the southeastern, southern and southwestern parts of the area of their settlement. Hypotheses that explain these facts are formulated. The appearance of ethnic Mongols in the south of Eastern Europe and haplogroups C, O and D with them seems unrealistic. Most likely, these haplogroups came to the region from the territory of Kazakhstan (through the Nogai) or from the Kalmyks. The answer to the above question is unambiguous. No.3%) in the southeastern, southern and southwestern parts of their habitat. Hypotheses are formulated to explain these facts. The appearance of ethnic Mongols in the south of Eastern Europe and haplogroups C, O and D with them seems unrealistic. Most likely, these haplogroups came to the region from the territory of Kazakhstan (through the Nogai) or from the Kalmyks. The answer to the above question is unambiguous. No.3%) in the southeastern, southern and southwestern parts of their habitat. Hypotheses are formulated to explain these facts. The appearance of ethnic Mongols in the south of Eastern Europe and haplogroups C, O and D with them seems unrealistic. Most likely, these haplogroups came to the region from the territory of Kazakhstan (through the Nogai) or from the Kalmyks. The answer to the above question is unambiguous. No.
Formulation of the problem
In Traditional History (TI), it is believed that the Mongols created a huge empire in the first half of the 13th century. Its military-political structure originated in the steppes of Central Asia. It was a symbiosis of the clan and tribal organization of the Mongols and the military traditions of the peoples who participated in the creation of the Turkic, Uighur and Kyrgyz kaganates. The conquests of the Mongols were carried out at first under the leadership of Genghis Khan, and then his sons and grandsons. By the 60s of the 13th century, the Mongol empire included the territories of Central Asia, China, Tibet, Southern Siberia, Central Asia, the Middle East, and Eastern Europe. The Empire was ruled by the descendants of Genghis Khan. Their most loyal troops were ethnic Mongols. According to the New Chronology of A. T. Fomenko and G. V. Nosovsky (NH FiN) [Site New Chronology], the so-called Mongol Empire is Russia-Horde,originated in the 14th century in Eastern Europe and began from here expansion to the east, south, and west. The military instrument of expansion was the Horde - an army formed and organized on the basis of certain principles [Nosovsky, 2005, New Chronology of Rus]. In this regard, it seemed relevant to find an answer to the question indicated in the title of the article.
General remarks
In recent years, human genetic research has been developing at an accelerated pace. With regard to the study of his past, three disciplines have been distinguished: gene genealogy, gene geography and gene chronology, which are integral parts of genetics. They are based on the same data set - human genetic markers.
There are two types of genetic markers. Genetic markers (genes) that:
Promotional video:
- do not affect the biological characteristics of people, that is, do not determine their "competitiveness" in survival in certain natural and social conditions;
- determine the biological characteristics of people and are the object of natural selection.
All three of the above disciplines of genetics are based only on the first type of markers. There are markers that do not affect the biological characteristics of people, which are transmitted only from father to son (they are isolated in the Y chromosome) or from mother to daughter (they are isolated in mtDNA). In this article, we will only consider markers that are transmitted along the male line. There are two types of markers on the Y chromosome. They define the "haplogroup" and "haplotype" of people. But a haplogroup is not a collection of haplotypes. It is a stand-alone marker.
We tried to solve the problem by formal methods. Identified markers-indicators of the event "Mongol conquests of the 13th century" and carried out a search for them among the peoples living in the territories that were included in the Mongol Empire, or located in the immediate vicinity of its borders. We almost did not address the concepts of NH PhiN. Moreover, it is possible to remove references to this intellectual product from our text. This will not change the formulation of the problem, nor the methods of its solution, nor the formal results of the analysis. The set of hypotheses explaining them will not change either.
The frequencies of haplogroups in Mongols were characterized by 5 samples [Karafet, 2001; Wells, 2001; Zerjal, 2002; Katoh 2005; Derenko M., 2006, Contrasting …; Derenko M., 2006, The diversity …]. Two more samples characterize Kalmyks [Nasidze, 2005; Derenko, 2006, Contrasting …; Derenko, 2006, The diversity …], whose ancestors lived in Mongolia until the 16-17 centuries. But there is a small problem here. The haplogroups of the Mongols in different samples were determined with different resolutions. In addition, different nomenclatures have been adopted to denote haplogroups. In bringing these data to a common denominator, we used the 2009 International Society of Genetic Genealogy nomenclature [Y-DNA].
The frequencies of haplogroups in Mongols were characterized by 5 samples [Karafet, 2001; Wells, 2001; Zerjal, 2002; Katoh 2005; Derenko M., 2006, Contrasting …; Derenko M., 2006, The diversity …]. Two more samples characterize Kalmyks [Nasidze, 2005; Derenko, 2006, Contrasting …; Derenko, 2006, The diversity …], whose ancestors lived in Mongolia until the 16-17 centuries. But there is a small problem here. The haplogroups of the Mongols in different samples were determined with different resolutions. In addition, different nomenclatures have been adopted to denote haplogroups. To bring these data to a common denominator, we used the 2009 International Society of Genetic Genealogy nomenclature [Y-DNA].
The sample of ethnic groups of Mongols and populations “adjacent” to them from the south and east [Katoh, 2005] includes 668 people (Table 1). It is believed that it was the Khalkh (Khalkh), who are today the largest ethnic group of Mongols, who lived on the territory of modern Mongolia in the 8-12 centuries. That is, it is the genetic data on them that characterize today's Mongols and Mongol conquerors of the 13th century. Small ethnic groups Uriankhai and Zakcnin (origins) live in western Mongolia. Their ancestors were Oirad Mongols. Khoton, a small ethnic group living in northwestern Mongolia. Their ancestors, a Turkic-speaking community, came to this region in the 17th century. The publication [Zerjal, 2002] presents the results of testing 408 men from 15 populations of Central Asia and the Caucasus (Table 2).
Mongols are represented by 65 people. As can be understood from the graphical information provided in it, only the Kurds of Turkmenistan were covered by the research. The publication [Nasidze, 2005] gives the frequencies of Kalmyk haplogroups (99 people). It is documented that their ancestors came at the beginning of the 17th century to the Northern Caspian region from the territory of Western Mongolia. For comparison, data are given for other populations, including the Mongols (24 individuals from [Wells, 2001]). These data are selectively shown in Table 3. Tables 1, 2 and 3 show markers-indicators of the event “Mongol conquests of the 13th century) in red. These are discussed below. The sample given in publications [Derenko, 2006, Contrasting…; Derenko, 2006, The diversity …], includes 47 people. The frequencies of the haplogroups are as follows: P * - 4.3%, R1 * - 4.3%, R1a1 - 2.1%, N * - 6.4%, N3 - 2.1%, C - 57,4%, I - 2.1%, K * - 21.3%.