Part 1
The dispute over what language should be in an independent Greek state (then not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. At that time, the language issue in Greece was in complete chaos. There were many languages. They were divided into "folk colloquial", which differed from region to region, and into "archaic", that is, old. Moreover, which of the old languages was "Ancient Greek" and which "Middle Greek" (Byzantine), and which language from which it comes, the Greeks themselves did not know then. Later they will be told by the "father of Greek linguistics" Georgios Hattsidakis (1843 - 1941). All these languages existed at the same time. Cultivated in different circles and schools, and were not "scientifically studied."
Phanariots stood for the "archaic" language. The Fanariots, from the northwestern Istanbul quarter of Phanar, in which they mainly lived, are a special privileged caste, consisting of "rich and noble" Greek, as well as Hellenized Wallachian and Albanian families. (Initially, there were many Slavs among the Phanariots, but then their number was reduced to a minimum). The Fanariots formed the circle of the Ecumenical Patriarch. The Greek Patriarch of Constantinople was the absolute religious and administrative ruler of all Christian Orthodox subjects in the Ottoman Empire, regardless of their ethnicity.
(The Turkish Sultan-Caliph himself had a lot of control over the “infidels.” He did this through his six vassals - the religious first hierarchs. The entire population of the empire was divided into communities - millets on a religious basis. Orthodox: Greeks, Serbs, Bulgarians, Vlachs, etc., were included in one millet-i-rum (Romanian millet, literally "Roman people").
The main ideologists of the transition to the "archaic language" were Eugene Voulgaris, Lambros Fodiadis, Neofit Dukas and others. Eugene Voulgaris, known in Russia as Eugene Bulgaris, is an ethnic Bulgarian, a prominent figure in Greek Orthodoxy, a participant in the "modern Greek enlightenment", a period when the Greeks had their own philosophy, history, science and began to develop their own national identity.
Evgeny Voulgaris.
Voulgaris was born on August 10, 1716 into a Bulgarian family living on the island of Corfu, under the rule of the Venetian Republic. He studied in Corfu with the scientist Vikentios Domatos, then continued his studies at the school of Ioannina (Western Greece) under Athanasius Psalidas.
In 1737 or 1738, he became a monk and presbyter named Eugene, and then entered the University of Padua to study theology, philosophy, European languages and natural sciences. In 1742 he became director of an important school in Ioannina - "Maroutsaia". This school in the 18th century was the cultural and educational center of the Ottoman Orthodox Greek world. Founded by the Maroutsis family, successful merchants and benefactors who did business with Venice. Here, in addition to the Greek language ("archaic"), he also studied Latin, philosophy and experimental physics. Preparations were under way for a "Greek intellectual renaissance."
Promotional video:
From 1753 to 1759, Vulgaris was the director of the Athonite Academy at the Vatopedi monastery. There he taught philosophy and mathematics. Although he was considered one of the most eminent teachers, his zeal for Western European ideas caused negative reactions among the Orthodox leaders on Mount Athos. Because of which, he was forced to leave school at the beginning of 1759.
Then for a short time he headed the Patriarchal Academy in Constantinople. The "Great School of the Nation", as the Greeks call this Academy, is the oldest and most prestigious Greek Orthodox school in Istanbul (Turkey). Founded in 1454 by Mateos Kamariots, it soon became a school for the "noble" Greek (Phanariot) and Bulgarian families of the Ottoman Empire. Many Ottoman ministers studied here, as well as Wallachian and Moldavian princes appointed by the Ottoman government. For example, Dmitry Kantemir graduated from it.
In 1761, Voulgaris gave up the department and was soon adopted under the patronage of Catherine II. In 1771 he came to St. Petersburg, in 1772-1774 he worked as the empress's personal librarian. And in 1775 he was ordained an archbishop and became the first bishop of the newly created Slavic and Kherson diocese. The new diocese includes the lands of Novorossiya and Azov, recently conquered by Russia from the Ottoman Empire. Despite the name, the bishop stayed not in Slavyansk (soon to be renamed Nikopol), not in Kherson, but in the center of the city of Poltava, in the Holy Cross Monastery.
The next year (1776), Eugene invited another native of Corfu, Nikifor Theotokis (he will be discussed in one of the following chapters), to join him in Poltava, and began to prepare him as his successor.
At that time, Catherine II was planning a project to recreate the Greek statehood. It is stated in a confidential letter to the Austrian Emperor Joseph II dated September 10 (21), 1782. The project involved the crushing of the Ottoman Empire and the division of its territory between Russia, the Holy Roman Empire and the Venetian Republic. In Constantinople, it was planned to revive the Byzantine state, headed by the grandson of the Russian empress, who was given the name of the city's founder - Constantine.
Part 2
The dispute over what language should be in an independent Greek state (then not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. The main ideologists of the transition to the "archaic language" were Yevgeny Voulgaris, Lambros Fotiadis, Neofit Dukas and others.
Lambros Photiadis (1752-1805) was the director of the Princely Academy of Bucharest, during which she reached the peak of her popularity. He also served as inspector of Greek schools in Wallachia.
Lambros Fotiadis.
Strange as it may seem, Bucharest, at that time, was known as one of the largest centers of the Greek language and culture. The Academy, founded in 1694 on the initiative of Constantin Brancovianu, was taught in the "ancient Greek" language. Most often Greeks were appointed teachers at the Academy. Students came here from all over the Orthodox world.
The Academy has organized 5 study cycles, each of which lasts 3 years. The first three-year cycle was devoted to the study of Greek and Latin grammars. The next cycle studied Greek, Latin and classical literature. In the third, students learned poetics, rhetoric, Aristotle's ethics, Italian and French. In the fourth cycle - arithmetic and geometry, as well as the history of geometry. Finally, the last cycle was devoted to the study of philosophy and astronomy. Natural sciences and philosophy were studied in Western reference books, many of which were translated into the "ancient Greek" language.
The Greek priest and scholar Neophytos Dukas (1760-1845) was a graduate of the Princely Academy of Bucharest.
Neophyte Dooku.
His main interests were focused on "ancient Greek" literature and philosophy. He edited (and most likely composed himself) the works of a large number of "ancient Greek authors", including Aristophanes, Bibliotech (Pseudo-Appolodorus), Homer, Pindar, Euripides, Sophocles, etc. More than 70 books came out from under his pen, which made a decisive contribution to the "modern Greek Enlightenment".
In 1803, Dukas moved to Vienna, where he was one of the most important personalities of the Greek community. In 1812 he returned to Bucharest. He worked first as a teacher at the Princely Academy, then as its director. The methods of teaching it were so popular that the number of students of the educational institution in a short time increased more than fivefold. In 1820 Dukas joined the Filiki Eteria organization.
Filiki Eteria is a secret organization of the 19th century, whose goal was to overthrow the Ottoman rule of Greece and create an independent Greek state. The members of the society were mainly young Greek Phanariots from Russia and local Greek leaders. The Society initiated the Greek War of Independence in the spring of 1821. The war was fought with armed assistance from Russia, Great Britain, France and a number of other European powers. And it ended on May 25, 1832 with the final recognition of Greece as an independent state.
Filiki Eteria was strongly influenced by Carbonarism and Freemasonry. The team of leaders was called "Invisible Power" (Αόρατος Αρχή). From the very beginning, it was shrouded in mystery. It was believed that many prominent personalities were its members. Not only outstanding Greeks, but also notable foreigners, for example, Tsar of Russia Alexander I.
In reality, at the initial stage, the invisible body consisted of only three founders. (Nikolaos Skoufas from the province of Arta, Emmanuel Xanthos from Patmos and Athanasius Tsakalov from Ioannina) From 1815 to 1818, five more people were added to the invisible administration. In 1818, the invisible organ was renamed the “Authority of the Twelve Apostles,” and each apostle was given responsibility for a different region.
The organizational structure was pyramidal with the "Invisible Body" coordination at the top. None of the members had the right to ask him.
Part 3
The dispute over what language should be in an independent Greek state (then not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. The main ideologists of the transition to the "archaic language" were Eugene Voulgaris, Lambros Fotiadis, Neofit Dukas. Their main opponent was the philosopher and scientist Josipos Misiodax.
Iosipos Misiodax (1725-1800) was born in the town of Cernavoda in Western Dobrudja. As a child, his name was Ioannis. "Joseph" is a monastic name. His ethnicity is still disputed. Some authors believe that the surname, Moisodax / Moesiodax ("dak from Moesia"), indicates Romanian origin. According to other versions, he came from the Greeks or Vlachs (Aromanians).
Little is known about his youth. It is assumed that he received his primary education from a Greek priest in Wallachia or Thrace. From 1753-1754 Misiodax studied at Greek schools in Thessaloniki and Smyrna, where he was influenced by Aristotelianism, a philosophical tradition that inspired the writings of Aristotle.
In 1754 or 1755, he went for several years to the Athonite Academy, which was then led by Eugene Vulgaris (he was described in detail in the first part). Between 1759 and 1762 Misiodax studied at the University of Padua with Professor Giovanni Poleni. During this period he was ordained a deacon.
In 1765, during the reign of Gregory Gik III, Misiodax came to Moldova, where he became the director of the Princely Academy in Iasi, and his professor of philosophy at this educational institution. The Princely Academy in Iasi (the then capital of Moldova) was founded in 1707 by Prince Antioch Kantemir (not to be confused with his nephew Antioch Dmitrievich Kantemir, a famous writer and diplomat in the Russian service). Education at the Academy was conducted in the "ancient Greek" language. In the 1760s, Prince Gregory Gica III modernized the Academy, introduced it to the study of mathematics, natural sciences and modern philosophy. After that, she rightfully began to compete with leading European universities.
In 1766 Misiodax fell ill, possibly with tuberculosis. He left the professorship and moved to Wallachia, where he lived for 10 years. Having recovered from his illness, he returned to Iasi, where he took over the leadership of the Academy for the second time. After only a few months, he was again forced to resign, due to the position of the boyars, dissatisfied with his ways of teaching.
Misiodax highly appreciated the works of Descartes, Galileo, Wolf, Locke, but most of all he admired Newton. He believed that the study of philosophy should begin with the study of mathematics, and that good philosophy is mathematical philosophy. In addition, Misiodax removed Aristotelian logic from the curriculum, replacing it with a theory of knowledge. He also suggested replacing ancient Greek in the curriculum with “vernacular spoken Greek” in order to improve the clarity of the lessons.
Part 4
The dispute over what language should be in an independent Greek state (then not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. The main ideologists of the transition to the "archaic language" were Eugene Voulgaris, Lambros Fotiadis, Neofit Dukas. Their main opponent was the philosopher and scientist Josipos Misiodax, a supporter of the "folk" language.
A compromise solution was offered by Adamantios Korais, who created a new language, with the light hand of Nicephorus Theotokis, called "caafverus" (purified). The term Theotokis was first mentioned in one of his works in 1796. The name has become generally accepted since the middle of the 19th century. Modern linguists are politically correct called "semi-artificial".
Adamantios Korais.
Korais was born in 1748 in the city of Smyrna (now Izmir). He received his primary education at the local Evangelical school. The school was founded in 1733 by the efforts of a Greek Orthodox bishop. In 1747, the educational institution, at the initiative of a local large merchant Panteleimon Sevastopulos, came under the tutelage of the British consulate and was under the complete control of Great Britain.
From his youth, Korais was passionate about philosophy, the spread of literacy among the population and the study of linguistics. In his adult years, Korais moved to France. In 1788 he graduated from the famous University of Montpellier. Lived in Paris. Criticism of the order in the Ottoman Empire. With the money of merchants from the island of Chios, he conducted publishing activities. I wrote a lot myself. His main literary work is seventeen volumes of the Library of Greek Literature. It includes the works of Strabo in the "ancient Greek" language, translations into European languages of the works of Homer and Herodotus.
“Like most Greek scholars, Korais thought in his contemporary Greek colloquial language, which we today call 'dimotics' - vulgar and rich in foreign borrowings,” writes the eminent linguist and professor at Oxford University Peter McGridge (Mackridge). - Korais wanted to "correct" his modern language in accordance with the rules of ancient Greek grammar. He was one of the first to raise the issue of national pride and national shame. He was proud of the ancient origins of the Greeks, but he was ashamed, especially in front of Western Europeans in Paris, for the “degeneration” and “deplorable state” in colloquial Greek speech. He lived abroad for decades and knew little about her. But, from an early age, spent in Smyrna (Izmir), he knew that his modern Greek was full of Turkish and Italian words and phrases. And he felt ashamed of it."
By the 1830s, an unofficial consensus was reached that the new Greek state should have a single written language in the version of Korais (caafverus). The romantic-classical ideologues of the new state could not tolerate the use of 'vulgar' colloquial Greek as official. A compromise decision was made: the language of Korais temporarily acts as a state language until "ancient Greek can" is fully restored.
However, the agreement that "caafverusa" is the state language was not enshrined in legal acts. This would put an end to hopes that the "ancient Greek" one day will take on the main role. The only mention of language in legislation came from the Education Acts of 1834 and 1836, which stipulated that “Ancient Greek” (and not “caafverus”) should be the language of textbooks used in schools.
Also, no special body was created to make decisions in language matters. “Very typical for Greece. "Reforming languages" in other new states was carried out with the help of official and semi-official bodies, while the Cabaverus was developed empirically and haphazardly, without congresses, commissions and academies, as well as with little official support. "- writes Professor Macridge.
Korais, although he was a fan of legislative clarity and accuracy, abandoned the idea of creating a body regulating language standards, in the image of the French Academy. In his opinion, poets and prose writers should become "trendsetters" of fashion and guide the development of language. But the highest authority should belong to the people, who in the long term will decide which works and which of the writers will “become a classic” and a role model.
Some of the notes on the language issue Korais published in the preface to the 16th volume of the "Library of Greek Literature". They were modestly called "Impromptu Thought on Greek Culture and Language." His other linguistic studies were published in the form of five collections under the even more modest title "Atakta" ("Mixed Almanac"). Korais himself did not publish the grammar of Modern Greek, as is supposed, to avoid lawmaking in grammatical matters. But, in 1833, the year of Korais's death, in the new collected works "Impromptu Thoughts …" it was published in the preface, which made his ideas available to a wide audience and provided a linguistic role model.
Two of his ideas, the worship of ancient Greek perfection, and his belief in the need to "fix" the modern language, had a powerful impact on the masses. In society at that time, the adjectives: "correct", "rich", "pure", "noble" and even "sacred" were used to describe ancient Greek and / or "caaverus", and their antonyms "illiterate", "poor", "Falsified", "vulgar" and even "blasphemous" in relation to the "common people".
Foreign borrowing was particularly vilified. Korais wrote: "borrowing from foreigners - or, more clearly, asking for words and phrases that already abound in the storerooms of your language - creates a reputation for complete illiteracy and even idiocy, as well as dishonor."
In such an intellectual climate, the population embarked on the cleaning of the tongue with enthusiasm. To restore national honor, "beer and brewers removed the signs that said" biraria "(from Italian Birreria) and put on" ζυθοπωλείον "(pub). Grocers removed" bakaliko "(from Turkish Bakkal) and put on" παντοπωλείον ". various scientists and specialists have developed and published (by order of the state) dictionaries for various sectors of the economy, more reminiscent of the dictionaries of the ancient Greek language.
For example, in the newly formed Royal Greek Navy, "ancient Greek" naval terms (which are neologisms) were introduced. Although civilian sailors continued to use the traditional ones, many of them were borrowed from the Italian language.
Part 5
In the newly created Greek state in the 1830s, the language used for official administrative purposes was “caafverus”. Hope for the future was directed towards “fixing” and “ennobling” everyday speech.
Believers in correction were divided into two camps. Representatives of one camp insisted on the complete resurrection of the "ancient Greek" language. Others thought it was impossible. And they hoped to bring up folk speech at least to the level of "caaverus". Both camps truly believed in the ability of the written word to improve spoken language. That "pure" forms will naturally replace the "spoiled common people", and the spoken language will thus rise to a higher and noble level.
Among the supporters of the ancient Greek revival, the leading role was played by Skarlatos Byzantios, who published in 1835 a dictionary of the "Greek dialect". The definitions and explanations of the words in it were given in ancient Greek and French. The dictionary ended with a list of words, mainly of foreign (most Turkish) origin, which should be excluded from colloquial speech as part of its purification.
(Skarlatos Byzantios)
In the preface to his dictionary, Byzantios stated: “Our spoken language must be brought in accordance with the language of the ancient ancestors. The gap between ancient and modern Greek must be bridged by writing in a more archaic language."
The leading positions in the other camp were occupied by Spiridon Tricoupis.
Spiridon Tricoupis.
Politician, diplomat, writer and speaker. First prime minister of independent Greece (1833). He held this post three times. He also worked as ambassador to London and Paris. He published his authoritative work "History of the Greek Revolution" on the "caafverus". In the foreword to the book, Tricoupis attacked the archaists and in practice supported the "golden mean". He expressed the hope that speaking and writing will eventually become one and the same. He argued that the spoken language will improve under the influence of the written language.
Part 6. Drift towards archaism and the Olympic Games
Over the decades, after "caafverus" was adopted as a common language, this language became more and more "archaic". Writers introduced more and more ancient Greek functions into it. For example, the dative case of a noun, which was absent in the original version of Adamantios Korais. Ancient Greek was seen as the ideal language and any reference to it was considered progress. Each new writer tried to use more archaic forms than his predecessor.
Nevertheless, the question of which archaisms to introduce into circulation caused stinging disputes between scientists. Another heated debate arose in 1853. When Panagiotis Soutsos published his work "The New School of the Written Word or the Resurrection of the Ancient Greek Language Understood by Everyone." In the brochure, he rejected the very idea of simplifying the ancient Greek, criticized "caafverus" as a "meager Frankish work" full of imported gallicisms. He stated that “the hearts and minds of modern Greeks will be uplifted if they write in ancient Greek. Thus, they will learn the truth and gain freedom. Accordingly, Soutsos proposed to transfer almost all ancient grammatical rules to the current language.
Panayiotis Soutsos.
Panayiotis Soutsos was born into a prominent Phanariote family in Contantinople in 1806. He studied in Padua and Paris. In 1833, after the end of the Greek War of Independence, he moved to Nafplio, then the capital of the newly formed Greek state. He soon founded a newspaper called Helios (Ήλιος, "The Sun") to promote the cause of Greek unity and culture. Today Soutsos is famous for inventing the Olympic Games.
In 1833, Soutsos published a poem "Dialogue of the Dead", in which the ghost of Plato, wandering in alarm across the Greek land, asked:
Where are all your theaters and marble statues?
Where are your Olympics?
This was the first mention of the Olympic Games. Later, in 1835, Soutsos began to translate his thoughts into reality. I wrote a letter to the Minister of the Interior, Ioannis Kolletis, proposing to declare March 25, the anniversary of the start of the Greek War of Independence, a national holiday. He also suggested that, as part of the Jubilee celebrations, there should be held, among other things, "the revived ancient Olympic Games". Initially, the idea seemed like a dead end.
But in early 1856, a wealthy merchant from the Greek diaspora in Romania, Evangelios Zappas, suggested that the Greek government finance the entire project to revive the Olympic Games, and provide cash prizes for the winners as well. On November 15, 1859, 25 years after they were conceived, the first modern sports Olympics took place in the city square in Athens.
Evangelios Zappas. In the 1850s, Zppas was considered one of the richest entrepreneurs in Eastern Europe. At the time of his death in 1865, his total wealth was estimated at six million gold drachmas.
But back to the Greek language. Constantinos Asopios responded to Panayiotis Soutos' proposals with a counterattack, continuing to defend the ideas of Adamantios Korais. Asopios insisted on a “simplistic approach and selective use of archaisms”.
Constantinos Asopios.
This exchange of views sparked a small "pamphlet war" by other scholars offering their own sets of alternative grammatical rules.
Academic discord was a difficult environment for the education authorities; it was not known which grammar rules were correct and which ones to teach in schools. The issue was resolved in 1856, when a royal decree reaffirmed the decrees of 1834 and 1836 on the study of the ancient Greek language in schools.
By about 1880, Greek society had come to the tacit realization that it was impossible to completely revive the ancient Greek language. Ordinary people would never use it in everyday life. There was agreement to leave the "caafverus" in the written language of the state.
At the same time, attempts were made to free the education system from the clutches of the ancient Greek language. Since 1881, "caafverus" has been officially allowed to teach in schools. However, changes were slow. In some elementary schools, ancient Greek was taught until 1917, in secondary schools, nothing else was allowed until 1909.