Modern so-called nation states were formed for the most part in the 19th century in connection with the rapid development of land-based means of communication, primarily railway transport. Accordingly, the need arose for the unification of writing as the most important means of communication for the management of large territories. I have already been corrected by philologists that, judging by the content of most of the articles, it was necessary to write in the heading not national, but literary languages in which state office work is conducted, works of art are created, etc., but the list contains Latin, Sanskrit, Mosarabian, so I find it difficult to choose suitable term and just added quotation marks.
When the German language was created. Hochdeutsch The written form of Standard German (Hochdeutsch) was created at the II Spelling Conference held in Berlin from 17 to 19 July 1901. The desire to create a single German language was especially evident after the creation of the German Empire in 1871. In 1876, on the initiative of the Prussian Minister of Culture Aldaberk Falk, the I Spelling Conference was convened, at which “negotiations towards a greater agreement in spelling” were held. However, it was not possible to agree on a uniform spelling of the Reich.
Lower German Lower German (Plattdeutsch or Niederdeutsch) is now spoken only in some areas of Northern Germany and northeastern Holland. It differs significantly from Hochdeutsch (the official language of Germany) and Upper German dialects. They are essentially different languages. But until now, Lower German shows great similarity with English and Dutch, which indicates a common origin.
By today, lower German has lost its meaning. In the Middle Ages, however, he dominated the Baltic Sea region, where he served there as the language of interethnic communication. Was an important literary language. It, along with Latin, was used to draw up trade and legal documents. Theological books were written on it. Several ancient Bible translations into this language are known.
When the Dutch language was created Linguistic diversity reigned in the medieval Netherlands. In every city, and even village, they spoke their own language. Dialects can be divided into five large groups: Flemish, Braband, Dutch, Limbur and Lower Saxon. Attempts to standardize the language were made in the 16th century in Brabant. However, for various reasons, they were unsuccessful. It was possible to create a single language in the 17th century. Subsequently, the actual Dutch and Belgian variants of the standard Dutch language diverged significantly. This happened because the Dutch did not have official status until the 20th century. The administration language was French.
When the Swedish language was created Until recently, there was no official language in the Kingdom of Sweden. Only in 2008, the parliament adopted a law giving the Swedish language official status. True, by that time, Swedish had been the main language in the kingdom for quite some time. The Swedish language began to emerge at the forefront in Sweden at the end of the 19th century. Previously, other languages dominated the country. So in the 18th century French became the language of the upper classes. King Gustav III (1771-1792) was a true Francophile and French was the main spoken language at his court. And in 1818, the French Marshal Bernadotte ascended the throne under the name Charles IV John. Previously, in the 17th century, Lower German was popular as the commercial and international language of the Hanseatic Trade Union. The language of the Catholic Church was Latin. Scientists also wrote their works on it. In particular, Karl Linnaeus published his most famous works in Latin. Apparently, the Russian language also played an important role in medieval Sweden.
When the Norwegian language was created In the middle of the 19th century, a young self-taught linguist Ivar Aasen set about creating the Norwegian language proper. He traveled all over the country, compared the local dialects, studied Icelandic. As a result, in 1848 he introduced a new written language - "Landsmall" ("rural language"). The main feature of this language was that words from Danish and Lower German were excluded from it, as much as possible. They have been replaced by synonyms, supposedly inherited from the "Old Norse". In 1885, Landsmall was adopted as the official written language, along with the Norwegian version of Danish.
At the same time, Knud Knudsen proposed to bring the spelling of Norwegian-Danish closer to the national pronunciation. For example, replace the letters "c" and "q" with "f". (Later, the letters "p", "t" and "k" were proposed to be replaced by "b", "d" and "d"). So a new written language was born, with the light hand of Björnstierne Björnson, called "Riksmol". In 1892, spelling reforms were officially enshrined in law.
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When the English language was created In principle, English is not much different from most other Western European languages. In the sense that it is the same remake as they are.
It should be said right away: until 1733, Latin was the official language of the English state. In the 17th and 18th centuries, there was an intensive growth of vocabulary. Borrowed from many languages. Most of all from Latin. The creation of the English language was completed in 1755 when Samuel Johnson published his Dictionary. W. Shakespeare made the greatest contribution to the creation of the English language, introducing over three thousand new words into it.
When the English language was created. Part 2 (Samuel Johnson Dictionary)
When the Polish language was created There is no evidence of the existence of the Polish language before the 16th century. Apart from a couple of books with prayers of dubious origin and even more dubiously dated. In scholarly circles, they speak of this period only as "the period of the origins of the formation of the literary language." The Polish language suddenly appears in the 16th century, exactly after the merger of Poland with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. And then its "golden age" begins. Moreover, that Polish is indistinguishable from the Russian language of the same time. It is believed that Latin was the state language in Poland, according to some sources, until the end of the so-called "Saxon period" - 1783, and, according to other sources, until 1795.
The first attempt to create the Bulgarian language “Since the mid-30s of the XIX century. Bulgarian society is seized by the idea of creating a single standardized literary language for the nation, developing a "common grammar for the whole of Bulgaria," which everyone must follow in their writings. " This idea was first clearly formulated by Neophyte Rylsky in the Philological Preliminary Notice to his Bulgarian Grammar (1835), which contains a theoretical basis for the practical solutions proposed by the author to create the norms of the literary language of modern times.
“The famous journey to the trans-Danube lands, undertaken in 1830-1831. Yu. I. Venelin on the instructions of the Russian Academy with the aim, in particular, of in-depth study of the Bulgarian language and the creation of its grammar, had a time of serious shifts in the historical, cultural and literary-linguistic situation in Bulgaria, associated with the progressive development of social thought in the course of the Bulgarian Renaissance. E. I. Demina “On the first experience of codification of the Bulgarian literary language of the Renaissance. The concept of Yu. I. Venelina)
The first Bulgarian awakeners The first cry in the spirit of the new European trends is heard from the monastery cell - a cry for national awakening and enlightenment, for the protection of the native language, native life. This was the call of Hieromonk Paisiy, who was defeated by Khilandarsky. “If you do not preach to Bulgarians, know your kin ı ıazık and ѹchi se in your azıkѹ,” he persuaded in his Slavno-Bulgarian History, which he completed in the Zograf monastery in 1762. He intended it to those scoundrels, “who do not love their kin and azik”, as well as “you who are jealous of the nobility and slishati for their kind, yes you know”.
When the Serbian language was created Back in the early 19th century, Church Slavonic was the official language in Serbia. Moreover, its Russian version. The so-called Slavic-Serbian language was literary in the 18th and first half of the 19th centuries. Sometimes it is called Slovenian. Not to be confused with another Slovenian language, now the official language of the Republic of Slovenia.
About Romanians and the Romanian language. In the 19th century, the self-name, for the sake of prestige, was slightly corrected to "român" (român). So the "serfs" became "Romans". At the same time, the writing was translated into the Latin alphabet. And in the second half of the 19th century, after the proclamation of independence, when Romania and Moldova formed a single state, a major language reform was carried out. All Slavic, German, Turkish and other words are replaced by Italian ones. It would be more accurate to say that the Romanians completely ripped off the Italian language, which in Italy was just starting to take the lead, with all its rules. As a result, Romanians can now understand Italians without an interpreter …
When the Bashkir language was created The modern literary Bashkir language arose after the October Revolution on the basis of the concentration of the Kuvakan and Yurmatinsky dialects. Prior to this, the Bashkirs used the Tatar literary language, in which Bashkir literature originally developed. The Bashkirs used the Arabic alphabet, from 1928-29 - Latin and from 1939 - Russian."
When the Lithuanian language was created For a long time, the Lithuanian language was not considered prestigious enough for written use. There was no single language. Language differences were significant between regions. There were Aushtaite and Samite dialects (or separate languages) and their numerous dialects. There were expectations that the Lithuanian language was about to die out on the territory of modern Lithuania. Many people used Polish and Belarusian in their daily life. At the beginning of the 19th century, the use of the Lithuanian language was largely confined to the Lithuanian rural areas.
When the Turkish language was created, How the Turkish language was created Before 1839, there was no official language in the Ottoman Empire, the predecessor of modern Turkey. Velikaya Porta was a multinational and multilingual state. A mixture of Turkish folk dialects, Arabic and Persian languages, the so-called Ottoman language in 1839, was declared a state language during the period of transit (political reforms). In 1851, the historian Ahmed Jevlet Pasha and the future Grand Vizier Mehmed Fuat Pasha published the first grammar of the Ottoman language.
Throughout the second half of the 19th and early 20th centuries, passions were seething in the Ottoman Empire about improving the language. (Let me remind you that from the middle of the 19th century, the official language of the empire was the Ottoman language, consisting of 70-80, and according to some estimates, all 90 percent, from borrowings from Arabic and Persian.) The disputes in republican Turkey ended with the language reform of 1928, after which was created, in fact, a completely new Turkish language.
When was the Greek language created? There is a state of Greece in Europe. It appeared on the political map in the first half of the 19th century after breaking away from the Ottoman Empire. Greece was created with the military assistance of Great Britain and France with the connivance of the Russian Emperor Nicholas I.
Believe it or not, but at the turn of the 18-19th centuries, the Greeks did not have their own single national language in which to write the Constitution and other laws, to conduct office work. The Turkish language, which all Greeks understood, did not seem solid to use for these purposes. Many common Greeks never knew Greek at all.
How the Greek language was created. The dispute over what language should be in an independent Greek state (then not yet created) first flared up at the end of the 18th century. At that time, the language issue in Greece was in complete chaos. There were many languages. They were divided into "folk colloquial", which differed from region to region, and into "archaic", that is, old. Moreover, which of the old languages is "ancient Greek" and which is "Middle Greek" (Byzantine), and which language comes from which, the Greeks themselves did not know then. Later they will be told by the "father of Greek linguistics" Georgios Hattsidakis (1843 - 1941). All these languages existed at the same time. Cultivated in different circles and schools, and were not "scientifically studied."
A compromise solution was proposed by Adamantios Korais, who created a new language, with the light hand of Nicephorus Theotokis, called "caafverus" (purified). The term Theotokis was first mentioned in one of his works in 1796. The name has become generally accepted since the middle of the 19th century. Modern linguists are politically correct called "semi-artificial".
When Hebrew was created. Yitzhak Perlman Eliezer (real name Ben-Yehuda) was born in the Russian Empire, on the territory of the modern Vitebsk region of Belarus. Ben-Yehuda's parents dreamed that he would become a rabbi and therefore helped him get a good education. As a young man, Eliezer was imbued with the ideas of Zionism and in 1881 he emigrated to Palestine. Here Ben-Yehuda came to the conclusion that only Hebrew can revive and return her to her "historical homeland." Influenced by his ideals, he decided to develop a new language that could replace Yiddish and other regional dialects as a means of everyday communication between Jews.
Simultaneously with the introduction of Hebrew, there was a campaign to discredit the Yiddish language. Yiddish was declared "jargon" and "non-kosher". In 1913, one of the writers declared: "Speaking Yiddish is even less kosher than eating pork." The peak of the confrontation between Hebrew and Yiddish was 1913, when the so-called "war of languages" broke out.
When the Hungarian language was created At the end of the 18th century, the Hungarian intelligentsia suddenly awakened. She was awakened by Georg Bessenyei (Bessenyei György). In 1765, he ended up at the court of Empress Maria Theresa as part of a newly created detachment of Hungarian bodyguards. Here he became interested in reading the masterpieces of French literature. He unwittingly drew a parallel between Western and Hungarian culture. And experienced pain and shame. After all, the Hungarians did not have any national culture then. In fact, they did not have their own language either. The aristocracy spoke and wrote in French and German. Middle class - in Latin. Latin was the official language in Hungary and in the Holy Roman Empire of which it was a part. The Hungarian language was rarely used and mainly in the villages.
The East is a dark matter, or when the Azerbaijani language was created. Someone will be able to explain why until 1956 the Azerbaijani language was not used in Azerbaijan in state institutions and was little known even to the Azerbaijanis themselves?
The East is a dark matter, or when the languages of Hindi and Urdu were created After the fall of the Mughal Empire in 1837, power passed to the British East India campaign. Along with English, the British proclaimed the official language "Urdu". This is the same Persian language with a large number of loanwords from numerous local languages and dialects. The separation of Urdu (Horde) and Hindi (Indian) began in 1867.
When the British government, to please the Hindu communities, in some northwestern provinces (now the states of Uttar Pradej and Bihar) changed the script of the Urdu language from Persian to the local Devanagari. Soon the Hindus demanded that Hindi replace Urdu as the official nationwide.
In 1900, the British government issued a decree formally equalizing the rights of "Hindi" and "Urdu". After that, language disputes arose with renewed vigor. The languages began to diverge linguistically. Until that moment, they were essentially one language, differing only in writing. Hindus began to diligently purge "Hindi" from Persian words, replacing them with Sanskrit counterparts.
A Brief History of Sanskrit. By 1773, the British had finally conquered India, removing all competitors from the road. India received the official status of a colony and the British prepared for this event properly - ten years later, in 1783, a grandiose discovery of ancient and mysterious Indian culture took place, Sanskrit was discovered and all the main literary works of the Indians were first published. All these pleasant discoveries were made by one person - the founder of modern philology Sir William Jones … And off it went, after the discovery of the unknown Sanskrit, an avalanche of amazing discoveries went, masses of the most ancient texts were discovered, transmitted by the Hindus from mouth to mouth for thousands of years and only among a select few - no one else knew them, neither in India, nor even more so in Europe. A huge team of leading philologists and writers of England worked in the office of Jones under the personal guidance of the Governor-General, so a lot of amazing texts were translated.
About Sanskrit and its predecessor What is now in use and is considered Sanskrit, in fact, "brought" by the so-called Indologists to Europe only in the 19th century. But how did this so-called Sanskrit "travel" across Europe? Who opened it? Where? When? Finding answers to these questions in historical facts sheds light on this problem. For the first time on February 2, 1786, the founder and leader of the Society of Orientalists in Calcutta announced his discovery, speaking of himself as a pioneer.
But it is interesting that in the circles of employees of the East India Company no one taught Sanskrit. At the same time, in Europe, interest in this language has grown rapidly. Why is it so? The results of psychosocial analysis of this problem would probably be explosive.
The 19th century gave birth to many Sanskrit scholars. If only these people were interested in learning genuine Sanskrit. According to the documents, the new scientists grew like mushrooms after rain. They were mostly Europeans. Mostly Germans, but the soil for their "growth" was in London and Paris. Why? Because in the museums there was an unassembled dump of ancient books and manuscripts. These new Sanskrit researchers studied the language in a very peculiar way …
And in 1823 another "William Jones" appeared. It was Friedrich Maximilian Müller, originally from Dessau..
When was Classical Latin created? The first textbook of grammar of classical (aka antique) Latin, Elegantiae Linguae Latinae ("On the elegance of the Latin language"), was published in 1471 by the Renaissance humanist Lorenzo Valla (real name Lavrenty della Valle). Valla is said to have "demonstrated the technique of purity and elegance of Classical Latin, devoid of medieval awkwardness." In 1536, the grammar of classical Latin in the book "De causis linguae Latinae" was thoroughly revised by Julius Caesar Scaliger, a specialist in all sciences of that time. His real name is Giulio Bordoni. He considered himself to be the offspring of the aristocratic house of La Scala (in Latin Scaliger) and used this pseudonym without a twinge of conscience. Julius Caesar is also known as the father of Joseph Scaliger, the founder of modern chronology.
When was the French language created? Work on the invention of a single French language began in the first half of the 17th century. In 1635, the French Academy was founded (not to be confused with the Paris Academy of Sciences). According to the official website of the academy www.academie-francaise.fr, from the first days of its existence, it was entrusted with the mission, I quote: "to create the French language, give it rules, make it clean and understandable for everyone."
The French language was introduced in France by administrative measures, first under the influence of the Parisian royal family. After the Great French Revolution, a strong oppression of the popular languages began. Studying them was prohibited by law. Common French was seen as a key factor in the formation of a unified French nation. The ban, and even then formally, was lifted only in 1982, when it was allowed to teach indigenous languages in schools as electives.
The language of the troubadours and Albigensians. In the Middle Ages, people who lived on the territory of modern France did not know French. The regions spoke their own languages. So, in the south, the dominant language, now called Occitan. However, this is a rather late term. Apparently introduced in the 19th century by the literary group "Feliber" and its leader Frederick Mistral, who tried to revive the literary tradition of this language.
When the Italian language was created In general, there was no such Italy in the Middle Ages. There were many independent states on the Apennine Peninsula. The linguistic palette of the peninsula was very diverse. In fact, every city, and even village, had its own language … Most of the spoken languages were descended from Latin. Latin itself was also widely used. It was used for paperwork in the offices of states, church services. In addition, some languages were of Germanic and Slavic origin. Dialects of the Byzantine Empire were preserved in some places.
When the Spanish language was created Spanish, it was also the Castilian language created during the reign of the King of Castile and Leon, Alfonso X. Initially, the sphere of influence of the Castilian language was limited to the Castilian-Leone kingdom, which occupied a small territory in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. Other Catholic kingdoms of the peninsula had their own languages: Galician-Portuguese, Aragonese, Catalan and others. Basques spoke their ancient language. In most of the Iberian Peninsula, the country of Al-Andalus, the Moors ruled. The Mozarabian language predominated here.
Mosarabian Mosarabian was the language spoken by Christians in the Muslim domains in Spain in the Middle Ages. It was mainly used by the city dwellers who adhered to Christianity, although they adopted Arab customs and culture. The peasants more often converted to Islam. It seems that the Arabs also used it. It is curious that Spanish scientists began to call the "Mozarabian" language in the 19th century. The word comes from the Arabic "mustarab", which means arabized. Another, Arabic, name of the language is al-ajamiya (foreign, unfamiliar). The native speakers themselves called it … Latin. Now Mozarabian belongs to the Romanesque group. Meanwhile, he was an explosive mixture of Arabic and Latin. His vocabulary was about 40 percent Arabic and 60 percent Latin. Writing,unlike most other Romance languages, it was based on the Arabic alphabet. Hebrew graphics were also occasionally used.
When the Khmer language was created. The “ancient” Khmer language was created at the beginning of the 20th century by the learned Buddhist monk Chuon Nath.
