Ancient Indian gods have numerous parallels in the cults of other peoples - Iranian, Greek, Slavic. So, the thunder deity Pardzhanya corresponds to the ancient Slavic Perun, and the sky god Varuna corresponds to the ancient Greek Uranus. The Vedas are very close to the culture of Ancient Iran. Both in India and Iran, the god Mithra was worshiped, during religious ceremonies they drank soma - a sacred drink that apparently had a narcotic effect.
In addition to the gods, negative characters of a lower rank actively operate in the Vedas: the asuras are the main opponents of the gods and the rakshasas are the main opponents of people. Their world is less known, their functions and relationships are not entirely clear.
The Indians of the Vedic era did not divide nature into living and inanimate. They believed that they were surrounded by a world in which not only people, animals, birds, plants live, but also objects - altars, weapons, household utensils, ointments and even dice. Indians identified natural phenomena with a certain deity: sunlight - with the god Surya, gusts of wind - with the god Vayu. Lightning flashing in the sky, rains or droughts, the twinkling of stars - all this caused delight or horror in them. The Vedic poet expressed his feelings in hymns, with which he tried to appease this or that god, or to sing of his beauty, strength and power, or to ask him for something. At the same time, the Indo-Aryans endowed their gods with completely human passions: love, jealousy, greed.
There was no clear hierarchy of gods. The relationship between them was not regulated, and it is impossible to establish the exact number of gods. Most often it is said that the gods were three times eleven each, that is, 33: 11 in heaven, 11 between heaven and earth, and 11 on earth. Often the god, praised in one or another hymn as the most powerful and irreplaceable, was in the background in another hymn. Such a "disorder" in the world of the gods reflected the unsettled social life of the Indo-Aryans themselves, who did not yet know a clear hierarchy within their tribes.
The oldest god, according to the Vedas, was Dyaus; he was also called Father-Dyaus. Various Indo-European peoples worshiped this deity even before the arrival of the Indo-Aryans in India. This is indicated by the fact that the Greeks knew him as Zeus, the Romans - as Jupiter, the ancient Germanic tribes - as Ziy. Dyaus personified the sky in various states: the night sky was represented in the form of a black horse decorated with pearls, the thundering sky emitting lightning - in the form of a mooing and angry bull. Dyaus's wife was Prithvi (Earth), and they were praised as the progenitors of the world.
Varuna - the creator of the world - originally occupied the main place in the Vedic pantheon. He lived in a palace in heaven, surrounded by other gods. Then he was overthrown by Indra. The Vedic hymns contain hints that Indra, himself created by the gods, killed his father, and in one hymn the gods are accused of "leaving Varuna's father for Indra's son." Thus, Indra took the leading position. Varuna was a god who punished crimes. Its functions included the distribution of water, the gift of rain. Varuna is the owner of the sacred drink of soma, the patron of the moon, the night deity. He was opposed by the sun god Mithra.
The most warlike god of the Vedic pantheon was Indra - the king of the gods, the god of thunder and rain, endowed by other gods with unlimited strength and an indestructible weapon - vajra - lightning. Indra is the only Vedic god whose birth is known for certain.
The names of Indra's parents differ, apparently, different gods claimed this role. The largest number of hymns in the Rig Veda is dedicated to him. They praise his physical strength and military exploits. Indra challenged and defeated the evil dragon Vritra, who "bound" the waters. The waters were freed, chaos gave way to an organized world order. The kingdom of Indra was opposed by evil demons - asuras and rakshasas. And when Indra became the head of the gods, the gods managed to overcome them. “He killed the snake, he drilled a hole for the rivers, he cut the loins of the mountains … and outwitted the cunning with cunning,” the Vedic poet said about Indra. Indra took over the functions of the keeper of the sacred drink of soma, he hid it in his stomach.
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Indra's army was made up of Marutas - the sons of another deity - Rudra. In the Rig Veda, Rudra occupies a subordinate place, but his fierce appearance, powerful weapon, first of all a bow and arrow, were forced to treat him with great respect. Rudra was not only a destroyer god, but also a healer. He lived in forests and mountains, instilled fear in people and punished people for violating prohibitions. Rudra is often associated and even identified with the Vedic fire god Agni.
Agni - one of the main Vedic gods - was born from heavenly waters and flew to earth in the form of lightning. He could also be born from the friction of a dry tree. Agni was a generous keeper of the hearth, he bestowed healthy offspring, served as an intermediary between heaven and earth and passed human sacrifices to the gods - this is the most important role of Agni in the Vedic pantheon.
O Agni, go with [your] messenger service - Do not fail! -
To the gods, [sent] by a crowd of [singers] making prayers!
Almost Saraswati, Marutov, Ashvinov …
All the Gods, so that they are gifted with treasure!
The Vedic poets praised his golden hair, three or seven tongues, the fire he creates. Agni is the son of Dyaus, but other gods also claimed the role of his father. However, in some hymns he himself is their father.
In later Vedic texts, Vishnu comes to the fore, although in the Rig Veda his role is not yet very clear. It is known about him that he crossed space in three steps. Vishnu's third step leads to the world of the gods. The Iranian "Avesta" also contains a myth about the three steps of the deity Amesha Spenta through space. Vishnu helped Indra to defeat the evil demon Vritra. For Indra, he prepared the drink of soma, with which he himself is often identified.
Vishnu in the form of a lion-man
In the Vedic sacrifices, great importance was attached to the intoxicating drink of soma. And the god Soma in the Vedic world of gods occupies one of the most important places. Since the time for collecting and preparing soma depended on the lunar cycle, Soma was revered as the god of the moon. The moon itself was represented as a bowl filled with soma - the drink of immortality. Soma, the "lord of the regions," endowed with military strength, rides his chariot in the guise of a conqueror of light. Soma's birthplace was on earth, on Mount Mujavant. However, he is also revered as "the son of heaven."
One of the most beautiful and beloved by Indians goddesses was Ushas - the goddess of the morning dawn and the daughter of heaven. Every morning, in the form of a beautiful and eternally young girl, she came in shiny clothes to chase her sister away from the night and appear in a shining chariot drawn by fiery horses. This is how the Vedic poet sang it:
Here in accordance with the [divine] order
Ushas, born in heaven, lit up.
She came showing [her] greatness.
She revealed evil spirits [and] a bleak darkness.
The best of the Angiras, she awakened the paths.
May we have great luck today!
O Ushas, give [us] a great blessing!
Give us glittering honorable wealth, Creator of glory among mortals, oh human goddess!
In the Vedic period, until the appearance of the Upanishads, the concept of "soul" was not known. The Vedic Indians mentioned asu - life force and manas - spirit. After death, in the rite of cremation, a person received a new body, free from the shortcomings with which he went to heaven. There he attained bliss, expressed in the form of material wealth. In the Upanishads, this heavenly paradise is transformed into a "transitional" area, from where souls begin the process of rebirth.
According to another, more ancient view, confirmed by the Iranian tradition, after death a person passed into the underworld of the dead, where the god Yama (literally "twin") reigned - one of the most ancient Vedic deities (its Iranian correspondence is Yami). The first lord of the human kingdom, equal to other gods, a lover of soma, he turns into the king of the dead, he himself becomes embodied death, the lord of the underworld.
The functions of the Vedic gods were very clearly distributed in three directions. Varuna - the god of water, the keeper of a correctly performed ritual - performed the main magical and ritual functions; he was an indispensable participant in all rituals performed. The fire god Agni and Soma had similar functions. Indra was the main warrior deity, and the children of Father Dyaus - the twin brothers of Ashvins - were "responsible" for providing the celestials with various material wealth.