On one summer day in 789, an event took place on the coast of the Anglo-Saxon kingdom of Wessex, to which only local chroniclers paid attention. On the coast of the island of Portland, in the era of the Roman Empire called Windelis in Latin, three long boats docked, capable of sailing and oars. Bearded, fair-haired strangers disembarked from the ships, speaking a language vaguely similar to Old English - at least the roots of most of the words were clear to the inhabitants of Wessex. Tan Beokhtrik came out to meet the shipmen with his men. We do not know what the conversation was about, but it ended in a quarrel: the foreigners killed Beokhtrik, massacred his small detachment, took the trophy weapon, plunged on boats and disappeared into the ocean.
In general, this story at that time was not something out of the ordinary - a matter through and through everyday life. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain were diligently at enmity with each other, and when closely related quarrels got bored, they began to spit the Celts in Wales or Scotland, got back and again returned to the usual civil strife. War was the most common thing, and if you pay attention to every minor skirmish in the annals, you will not get enough parchment. So why did such an insignificant incident on Windelis attract the attention of a chronicler, and in our times is considered almost the key event of the 8th century in Europe, which gave rise to a new era?
Scheme of Scandinavian expansion in the VIII – XI centuries. Green indicates areas that have been attacked by Vikings, but not colonized by them.
It should be noted here that the Anglo-Saxons have been Christians for more than two hundred years - as well as all their neighbors without exception: the Franks and Bretons across the English Channel, the Irish, the Scots and the Welsh. The relics of polytheism, if preserved, then at the everyday level or in very remote and inaccessible mountain areas. The ill-mannered bearded men who landed in Wessex turned out to be the most real pagans - which in itself was extremely unusual.
The story with tan Beokhtrik is the first documentary evidence of the appearance of the Vikings. The plundering of Lindisfarne and Yarrow, the forays into Ireland, the landing on the Orkney and Shetland Islands - all of this will happen later. In 789, none of the British or Franks could even imagine that Christian Europe was faced with a force that, over the next three centuries, would change not only borders, but also the demographic situation, culture, and even cause a new prayer to appear:, Domine! " - "Save us from the wrath of the Normans, Lord!"
So let's try to figure out where the Vikings came from, who they are and why their invasion took place at all.
Scandinavia in the Dark Ages
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People on the Scandinavian Peninsula appeared long before the birth of Christ. The earliest cultures (Congemose, Nöstvet Lihult culture, Ertebölle culture, etc.) date back to the Mesolithic period and around the sixth millennium BC. For two to three thousand years BC. in southern Scandinavia, carriers of the "Battle Axes and Corded Ware Culture" appear, which, presumably, become the nucleus of the birth of the Germanic peoples - they migrate north from the Jutland Peninsula and begin to populate the territories of present-day Sweden and Norway.
However, these matters are quite old, and we are interested in the period after the fall of the Roman Empire, when a group of North German tribes began to separate from the rest of Europe. The great migration of peoples, the collapse of Rome, the adoption of Christianity by the Goths, Franks and other Germans - in a word, all the grandiose changes of the middle of the first millennium of our era practically did not affect Scandinavia: too far. In the Dark Ages, no one showed interest in Scandinavia: the Franks had something to do on the continent, the introduction of Christianity went on, albeit confidently, but slowly: the church first had to establish itself in the new barbarian states. The inhabitants of the peninsula located beyond the North and Baltic Seas "cooked in their pot" for many centuries, knowing practically nothing about the turbulent events in Europe. Christian missionaries there if they appeared,they were isolated and incapable of achieving serious success: the old Germanic gods were revered, as they were centuries ago, and nothing threatened their cult.
Wendel style helmet, 8th century (from the collection of the Stockholm Museum of Antiquities).
Here you should make a lengthy digression and talk about the climatic features of those times - otherwise it will not be clear why suddenly, starting from the VIII century, the Scandinavians rushed to look for new lands for settlement. Over the centuries, the climate has changed more than once, optima (warming) and pessimums (cooling) alternated - the so-called Roman climatic optimum, which lasted from the time of Julius Caesar to about 400 AD, contributed a lot to the prosperity of the Roman Empire. The average temperature was then 1-2 degrees higher on average, Roman authors tell us that in Britain and Germany they even began to grow grapes - from about 280 AD.
In turn, the climatic pessimum of the early Middle Ages, which came during the Great Migration, exacerbated the already not very favorable military-political and demographic situation in Europe - the cold snap that began around the 5th century reduces the cultivated areas, especially the northern regions in general and, of course, Scandinavia in particular. Saint Gregory of Tours in his extensive work of the 6th century "History of the Franks" notes: "At that time there were heavy rains, there was a lot of water, there was unbearable cold, the roads were muddy and the rivers overflowed their banks." In 535-536, an unprecedented climatic anomaly occurred. Let's give the floor to the Byzantine historian Procopius of Caesarea ("War", IV, 14. 5-6):
Other authors argue that even at noon the sun looked "bluish" and objects did not cast shadows - this means that for almost a year and a half, dust suspension was present in the atmosphere, caused by the eruption of a supervolcano or the fall of a large meteorite, and, most likely, by both factors. The German scientist Wolfgang Behringer in his book "Kulturgeschichte des Klimas" cites archaeological data - in Norway in the 6th century, about forty percent of farms were abandoned, that is, their owners either died out or migrated to the south. In general, in Old Norse mythology, cold, frost and ice have eschatological properties, being a symbol of death and chaos - remember the ice giants …
Nevertheless, by the 8th century, the climate begins to stabilize - warming sets in, sown areas are expanding again, grain harvests can be taken at latitudes adjacent to the Arctic Circle, the quality of life rises sharply. The result is quite natural - an explosive growth of the population.
However, here one should take into account not only climatic features, but also the geographical specifics of the Scandinavian Peninsula. Whereas eastern Sweden has vast plains suitable for agriculture, in mountainous Norway it is possible to grow bread and graze herds only on narrow strips of land along the coast and in river valleys. It is impossible to endlessly divide the allotments between the sons - the land will still not feed them. In the bottom line: excess (and passionate) population, lack of food. Scandinavia is not rubber. What to do?
The way out was found pretty quickly - since there is no fertile land, it means that one must look for such over the sea. Considering that the ancient Scandinavians long ago knew how to build excellent ships, the solution to the issue lay in the palm of your hand. The first "prototype" of the drakkar, "Hjortspring boat", found by archaeologists in Denmark, on the island of Als, dates back to the 4th century BC. - the boat could accommodate up to 20 rowers. Moreover, the Scandinavian boats, which had a minimum draft, could walk in any shallow water and penetrate into narrow rivers.
Hjortspring boat - a ship of the ancient Germans, approx. IV century BC National Museum of Denmark.
It was then that the first forays of the ancient Scandinavians began in the direction of the continent and the British Isles - for a start, for more reconnaissance than conquering purposes. It was necessary to get acquainted with the situation, and that clearly testified: there is a lot of land there, the density of the local population is extremely low, such a population is unusual for lightning raids from the sea, and in general they are not aware that they are possible. There is also documentary evidence - we will quote the scientist, theologian and poet of the VIII century Flacca Albinus (Alcuin):
Nobody suspected. And Europe paid a huge price for its ignorance.
They came
In the light of the above, the question remains open - how did the European kings and bishops playing an ever-increasing political role have blasted such an incredible danger? Where did the great historical figures of that era look? In the end, Emperor Charlemagne cannot be called an incompetent bum, and such an important tool for the state as intelligence, the former barbarians quite successfully adopted from the gone into oblivion of Rome! It is quite obvious that at least some kind of ties existed between the Frankish empire and Scandinavia - the northern borders of Saxony and Frisia adjoined the territory of present-day Denmark, whose inhabitants will also take an active part in the impending atrocities of the Vikings.
No answer. Perhaps the growing cultural and civilizational differences played a role - recall the words of Alcuin, in which the key concept is "pagan", which is opposed to "Christians." The Europeans were then united not by ethnicity, but by religion: any non-Christian was a stranger, be it a Spanish Muslim Moor or a Scandinavian who worshiped the gods of Asgard. For the time being, the Franks and the kingdoms of Britain treated unwashed pagans from the distant northern fjords with disdain, sincerely believing that the Lord was on the side of Christians (then who is against them ?!).
Vikings. Old English miniatures.
Now we need to explain what we generally mean by the term "Viking". The word itself is formed from two parts: "vik", that is, "bay, bay", and the ending "ing", denoting a community of people, most often generic - compare: Carolingian, Capetian, etc. We get the "man from the bay"! Initially, the Viking squads were made up of the very surplus of the population - the younger sons who did not inherit the allotment, people who left the family themselves or were expelled from it, or even just seekers of adventure, wealth and fame. That is, not sedentary Scandinavian landowners. However, why only Scandinavians? Anyone could be in the crew of the ship - a Norwegian, a Vened, a Ruyanin, a Ladoga Krivich. After the Scandinavians began to master the "Way from the Varangians to the Greeks" through the Neva, Ladoga, Volkhov and further into the Volga basin, many Slavs began to appear in the squads.especially since the polytheistic pantheons of Scandinavia and Ancient Rus were very close, and on this basis it was possible to find a common language very quickly.
So, Viking is not a profession, nationality or occupation. This is a social status, a marginal social group, a cross between a soldier of fortune, a person without a fixed abode, and a bandit as part of an organized group of people of Scandinavian (and not only) nationality. Such good fellows, without any unnecessary reflection, could easily rob a neighboring fjord, their own relatives, Norwegians or Svei - precedents are known. For the most part, they were not limited to the system of moral taboos, which is obligatory for sedentary Scandinavians, and gradually began to believe that they were superior to boring farmers, if only because the sacralization of war began in the religious sphere - just remember the cult of the warrior gods, Odin, Thor and others.
Thor with the Mjöllnir hammer. A figurine dating from around 1000 A. D.
If a social group has appeared, then in such a subculture, its own ethics and its own religious beliefs will certainly arise - especially in the conditions of the dominant tribal system around. You don't need to go far for examples - the functions of the priesthood, godi, are gradually shifting to the military leaders: if you are a successful king, it means that you are close to the gods, they favor you - therefore, you send the necessary rituals and make sacrifices. There is only one way to get to Valhalla after death is guaranteed - to die heroically in battle. One of the first places is given to personal valor and glory, of course, gained in a fair battle.
Finally, it is the Vikings who "invent" the marines in the form in which we know them - there was nothing for Christian Europeans to oppose them to tactics never seen before. The scheme worked out by the ancient Scandinavians was simple, but incredibly effective: a sudden raid almost anywhere on the sea or river coast (again, remember the ability of the drakkars to walk in shallow water), and after a successful attack, an equally lightning retreat before the enemy had time to pull up any significant strength - then look for these robbers in the open sea. It is only then that the Vikings will engage in respectable trade, for the sake of curiosity they will discover Iceland, Greenland and America and go to serve in the "Varangian squad" to the Byzantine emperors, and at the end of the 8th - beginning of the 9th centuries they were exclusively engaged in the most egregious robberies, the seizure of lands in England,Ireland and on the mainland, the slave trade and other equally interesting things …
Old Scandinavian ships, modern reconstruction. In the foreground is the drakkar Islendingur ("Icelander"), sailing across the Atlantic Ocean in 2000. It is currently in the museum in Nyardvik, Iceland.
It makes no sense to tell here about the first major Viking raid - the attack on the monastery of St. Cuthbert on the island of Lindisfarne on June 8, 793 - it makes no sense, this story is well known. Suffice it to say that this unpleasant event took place just four years after the first appearance of the Vikings off the coast of Wessex; the Scandinavians very quickly realized that Christian monasteries and cities hold a great deal of wealth that should have been better used. Even the coffin of the founder of the monastery, Saint Cuthbert, was dragged from Lindisfarne by the Vikings, and it was found only three hundred years later, in 1104, fortunately little damaged. Since that time, Europe no longer knew peace - they appeared almost every year, here and there. It was absolutely impossible to predict the direction of the next blow,as well as to seriously resist the Scandinavians by military force - they slipped out of the hands like drops of mercury; the armies of the heirs of Charlemagne or the British kings simply did not have time to approach the site of the next attack.
However, we will tell about the further history of the Viking campaigns some other time - this text was intended to explain how the climatic and geographical features of the early Middle Ages predetermined the beginning of the era of Norman conquests, which lasted more than three hundred years.
Andrey Martyanov
