Knowledge and inquisitiveness of mind, striving for scientific discoveries have been welcomed by the authorities at all times. A good education opened up unprecedented opportunities in the civil service and in science. True, in Russia for a long time it was easier to invite already well-known professors and scientists from abroad, setting them high salaries, raising them to ranks and creating good working conditions. To study, so to speak, to become a professor, our compatriots in those years usually went abroad. They returned home enriched with knowledge and with received academic titles and degrees. The internships of Russian teachers at foreign universities were widely practiced, which ended, as a rule, with obtaining master's and doctoral degrees. There were also those who happened to work as a teacher, most often in one of the European universities, and receive the title of professor there.
Professorial status was acquired by deep knowledge
Professor in Latin means teacher. It is believed that for the first time as an academic title and position, professorial status was introduced at Oxford University in England in the 16th century. In the Russian Empire, the first higher educational institution in the form of the Academic University at the Academy of Sciences appeared in 1725. With some changes, this university existed until 1776. However, Moscow University, founded in 1755, became the classical form of the university structure. It largely corresponded to the established world standards of university education. Initially, Moscow University had only 3 faculties and 10 departments headed by professors. In total, at the beginning of 1914, there were 10 imperial universities and 11 higher technical educational institutions in the empire. Moreover, they were included in the total number of 63 state, public, private and departmental educational institutions of higher education. In 1915, in connection with the outbreak of the First World War, Warsaw University was transferred to Rostov-on-Don. Since then, it became known as the Rostov University. The universities of that time, as a rule, had 4 basic faculties: physics and mathematics, history and philology, law and medicine.
In the 19th century, the empire created its own system of training scientific and pedagogical personnel, which began to contribute to world science. An important role in this was played by Russian universities and other higher educational institutions, in which the teaching staff of the Russian Empire was formed. However, in the legal sense, the definition of the notion “scientist”, as N. Zipunnikova notes, was first formulated only in April 1862. At the same time, the reason was not so much the desire of the authorities to establish the scientific, pedagogical and research status of Russian scientists, but a more banal reason. The question arose in connection with who in the empire should be considered scientists in order to determine for their children the right to enter the civil service. True, the concept of "learned people" was used earlier, but questions of its legal interpretation somehow did not arise.
In the university scientific and pedagogical environment, Russian pundits revealed the presence of research talent and a desire for scientific discoveries. Already at the beginning of the 19th century, there were scientific degrees of candidate, master and doctor of science in Russia. For some time, there was also a primary academic degree - a real student. It was later canceled. At the same time, the best students who completed the full course of university sciences were awarded academic degrees of candidates without exams. For the rest of the graduates, in addition to the right to a class rank, there was also an opportunity to acquire a candidate's degree. However, for this it was necessary to successfully pass a rather difficult examination in their specialty. A year later, candidates could receive a master's degree after testing. In 1884, the candidate's degree was also abolished. Masters, in accordance with the laws of the empire and in accordance with the university charters, a year later had the right to defend a doctoral dissertation. Of course, the topic of doctoral research could not deviate significantly from the chosen field of knowledge. The rules of preparation, as well as the procedure for defending a doctoral dissertation, were set out in the regulations and instructions of the Ministry of Public Education (hereinafter - MNE).
Difficult path to professor
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In 1835, the General Charter of the Imperial Russian Universities was approved. It defined the rights and freedoms of higher educational institutions of the empire, and also established the states and teaching positions in universities. At the same time, professorial academic titles were introduced: ordinary professor (full-time) and extraordinary professor (freelance).
At the same time, it was believed that, as a rule, professorial positions should be held by doctors in the specialization of university departments. To be admitted to defend a dissertation for a doctoral degree, it was required to pass an oral exam (4 written questions by lot) in all faculty disciplines in the presence of two representatives from the university council and all interested university teachers. All those present at the defense had the opportunity to ask the applicant "an indefinite number of verbal questions." However, by the mid-1880s, the doctoral examination procedure was canceled. The main task of the doctoral student was the preparation and defense of the doctoral dissertation itself. In its preparation, it was allowed to use the materials of their master's work on this topic.
Since 1837, a prerequisite has become the requirement to match the name of the science on which the doctoral dissertation is presented to the education received at the faculty. In the event of a discrepancy, the applicant had to take exams externally to obtain specialized education. True, such a curiosity happened only once. In 1907, Doctor of General History A. S. Kotlyarevsky prepared a dissertation on the legal profile, in connection with which he was forced to take exams as an external student for the full course of the law faculty.
The dissertation for a doctoral degree was presented and defended in Latin. Later it was allowed to defend dissertations in Russian. The approval of the decision of the Academic Council on the award of the doctoral degree by the Minister of Public Education was a prerequisite.
The number of scientific directions or, as they said at that time, "categories of sciences" was constantly increasing. In accordance with them, doctoral degrees were awarded. So, in 1819 there were only 14 of them, and by 1864 there were already 40 "categories of sciences." Accordingly, the number of doctoral dissertations defended also increased. So, for 58 years in the period from 1805 to 1863, 160 doctoral theses were defended, or on average 3 defenses per year. And in 9 years (from 1863 to 1872), 572 doctoral defenses have already passed. The approximate dissertation activity in less than a decade was about 60 doctoral theses per year.
The medical faculties had their own specificity for obtaining doctoral degrees. Here, since 1838, two doctoral degrees have been awarded - Doctor of Medicine and Surgery or Doctor of Medicine. But after 1884, the doctoral degree became unified - the doctor of medicine.
Obtaining a doctoral degree served not only as evidence of a high level of professional training, but also opened up quite definite career prospects.
If a university graduate in the public service could immediately apply for a position according to the rank of the XII grade, then the doctor of sciences was entitled to a rank not lower than the VII class of the Table of Ranks. As they said at the time, a university degree was equated with a noble diploma. A university graduate received personal nobility, and the holder of a doctorate degree acquired hereditary nobility.
According to the existing rules, the academic title of professor was awarded by the "professorial colleges" of the university faculties and approved by the rector. At the same time, the rule was always taken into account: "who develops and promotes science, he teaches students." As a rule, one could get the vacant professor position only by competition. For this it was necessary to read 3 trial lectures on the subject in the presence of the rector and dean of the profile faculty.
Only the Minister of Education had the right to appoint a professor vacancy out of competition. He also approved all the proposals of the rector based on the results of the competition for the personal appointment of the professor. According to the rules that existed at that time, a professor could only head one university department. If necessary, the Minister of Education could authorize the combination of two professorial positions. The main task of the professor was to give lectures to students. The work was not very onerous. It was required to spend at least 8 hours of classes per week. If a professor missed classes included in the schedule, a monetary fine was imposed on him. The money thus withheld was spent on the needs of the university.
Women's share in scientific discoveries
Higher education for girls in Russia became available much later. It was only in 1869 that the first women's educational institutions were formed in the form of women's higher courses with university curricula. This work was most actively carried out under Nicholas II. The Women's Medical Institute was opened, and in 1912 the emperor approved the Statute on the Women's Pedagogical Institute of the Department of Institutions of Empress Maria. By the way, paragraph 28 of this Regulation provided for the possibility of electing women to the post of professor "with the appropriate academic qualification." The positions of institute professors were approved: theology, 12 ordinary and 9 extraordinary in subjects. All full-time (ordinary) professors were considered to be in the public service.
Other higher women's courses and institutes were also opened. Now higher education could be obtained in the capitals and other large cities of the empire. But the path to science for Russian women was actually closed. We proudly remember Sofya Kovalevskaya, who became the world's first woman professor of mathematics. She had a Ph. D. from Germany at the age of 24. In 1884 in Sweden she was awarded the title of professor of mathematics and allowed to teach at Stockholm University. But in the Russian Empire, the path to teaching was closed for her. Despite the fact that since 1889 she was a foreign corresponding member of the Physics and Mathematics Department of the Russian Academy of Sciences, she was not even allowed to attend the meetings of the Academy. Women were not supposed to be there. So she had to teach students in European universities and die in a foreign land.
Switzerland was considered the most democratic in the field of female higher education in those years. In Swiss and other European universities, women citizens of the Russian crown received not only higher education. They had a real opportunity to prove themselves in science. So, Nadezhda Suslova became the first among Russian women who received a doctor of medicine degree, having defended herself, by the way, under the guidance of I. M. Sechenov. Or another example. Anna Tumarkina was among the first to receive a doctorate and became the first woman professor of philosophy at the university. Moreover, she was given the right, along with male professors, to take examinations for candidates for doctoral degrees and review dissertations. One of the streets of Bern is named after her.
Another Russian woman, Lina Stern, after graduating from the chemistry department of the University of Geneva, also became the first woman professor at this university.
As conditions were created for women to receive higher education on the territory of the Russian Empire, the number of Russian female students abroad decreased significantly. Over time, albeit in difficult conditions, it became possible for women to obtain a doctorate and a professor position at the universities of the empire. So, in 1910, Alexandra Efimenko became the first woman professor. It's hard to believe, but she was the wife of a political exile and the mother of 4 children. And nevertheless, she found time for science. Thesis defense took place at Kharkov University. The University Academic Council awarded her a doctorate in history. Later, she received the title and position of professor at the higher women's Bestuzhev courses, which were included in the list of higher educational institutions of the empire. However, things did not go so smoothly. For A. Efimenko in the status of professor required a separate decision of the State Council of the Empire, since the awarding of professorial academic titles to women was not provided for by law.
The material well-being of a person from science can be achieved in different ways. This includes a stable income from the results of scientific and pedagogical activities, various additional payments for scientific supervision of research, reviewing dissertations, tutoring, etc. Additional income can be generated by assets placed in banks, savings or investments of their savings in the stock market. And these are not all ways and means of achieving financial independence at all times. Many professors had such opportunities during the time of the Russian Empire. However, contrary to popular belief, university professors did not have huge incomes and were not involved in entrepreneurial activities. And, I think, not because they didn't know how to do it or didn't know how to organize their business. It was just that it was not accepted in the intelligent scientific environment of the Russian professors. And the hereditary nobility acquired along with the professorship obliged them to comply with the class norms of ethics and behavior. At the same time, one must take into account the fact that by the beginning of the 20th century, only about 33% of people from hereditary nobility remained among the Russian professors. For the rest of the professors, this was a new-found estate state. According to A. E. Ivanov, obtained in the analysis of the "List of persons serving under the Ministry of Public Education for 1917", only 12.6% of full-time university teachers owned real estate in the form of land ownership and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines. And the hereditary nobility acquired along with the professorship obliged them to comply with the class norms of ethics and behavior. At the same time, one must take into account the fact that by the beginning of the 20th century, only about 33% of people from hereditary nobility remained among the Russian professors. For the rest of the professors, this was a new-found estate state. According to A. E. Ivanov, obtained in the analysis of the "List of persons serving under the Ministry of Public Education for 1917", only 12.6% of full-time university professors owned real estate in the form of land ownership and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines. And the hereditary nobility acquired along with the professorship obliged them to comply with the class norms of ethics and behavior. At the same time, one must take into account the fact that by the beginning of the 20th century, only about 33% of people from hereditary nobility remained among the Russian professors. For the rest of the professors, this was a new-found estate state. According to A. E. Ivanov, obtained in the analysis of the "List of persons serving under the Ministry of Public Education for 1917", only 12.6% of full-time university professors owned real estate in the form of land ownership and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines.that by the beginning of the 20th century, only about 33% of people from hereditary nobility remained among the Russian professors. For the rest of the professors, this was a new-found estate state. According to A. E. Ivanov, obtained in the analysis of the "List of persons serving under the Ministry of Public Education for 1917", only 12.6% of full-time university professors owned real estate in the form of land ownership and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines.that by the beginning of the 20th century, only about 33% of people from hereditary nobility remained among the Russian professors. For the rest of the professors, this was a new-found estate state. According to A. E. Ivanov, obtained in the analysis of the "List of persons serving under the Ministry of Public Education for 1917", only 12.6% of full-time university professors owned real estate in the form of land ownership and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines.6% of full-time university professors owned real estate in the form of land and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines.6% of full-time university professors owned real estate in the form of land and houses. Landowners among them were only 6.3%. And only one professor owned an estate of 6 thousand dessiatines.
In other words, most professors had their main income only in the form of salaries received from the Ministry of Education. Other income was less significant and consisted of various university fees, royalties for public lectures, published books, etc.
Science service fee
According to its administrative and legal status, the professorial corps of the higher school of the empire constituted a special category of civilian officials. While in the public service, in accordance with the law, they were rewarded for diligence and blameless service with ranks, orders, higher positions and salaries. It should be noted that material well-being depended not only on this. An important circumstance was the very place of scientific service. The best conditions were available to the professors of the capital's imperial universities. In provincial universities and other higher educational institutions, salaries were significantly lower, as were the opportunities for scientific and teaching activities. This situation gave rise to a chronic shortage of PhDs in professorial vacancies at provincial universities. Often, professorships there were held by masters with training in the profile of the faculty.
It should be borne in mind that the authorities did not always show due concern for the material well-being of the professors. Thus, it took more than three decades after the adoption of the first university Charter (from 1804 to 1835) to increase the professors' salary by 2 and a quarter. Almost the same number of years passed when, in accordance with the next, third edition of the Charter in 1863, the salary increased 2.3 times. However, the new University Charter, adopted in 1884, kept the salaries at the same rate. The professors did not receive the salary increase expected for more than 20 years. The salaries of university professors still remained at the following levels: an ordinary professor received 3000 rubles, and an extraordinary (freelance) only 2000 rubles a year. At the same time, professors,simultaneously holding administrative positions at the university, had an additional payment to the professors' salary. The rector received an additional 1,500 rubles, and the dean of the faculty 600 rubles a year.
The introduction of a fee system in accordance with the University Charter of 1884 became a certain help for the professors' budget. Its meaning was that the professor was paid 1 ruble for each student at his lectures. for a weekly hour. Payments were made from funds contributed by students for the right to attend and take tests for a specific educational course. The amount of the fee depended mainly on the number of students enrolled and, as a rule, did not exceed 300 rubles. in year. According to A. Shipilov, the average salary of a professor's salary at that time was 3,300 rubles. per year or 275 rubles. per month. In the professorship itself, the practice of fees was treated differently. The largest payments were made to legal and medical professors, as the law and medical faculties were the most popular. At the same time, professors in less-demanded specialties had very insignificant royalties.
At the same time, there were territories within which there were increased payments of salaries and wages. For example, in accordance with the law, such benefits were provided in Siberia, so the professors of Tomsk University received a salary of one and a half. And for 5 and 10 years of service in a professorial position, they were entitled to an increase - respectively 20% and 40% of the staff salary. Higher salaries were also paid to professors at the University of Warsaw.
However, this was not the case everywhere. Significant differences in the material support of professors of metropolitan and provincial universities were also noted by the commission created at the end of the 19th century to transform the universities of the empire. So, in the report of a member of the commission, Professor G. F. Voronoi "On the salaries and pensions of university professors" provided data on the material condition of the family of an unnamed professor of Kharkov University for the period from 1892 to 1896. A professorial family of 4 people (a husband, a wife and two teenage children of different sexes) spent about 350 rubles a month only for urgent needs. During the year, the amount was collected within 4200 rubles. These expenses were not covered by the professors' salary. The table of average expenditures for this family given in the report shows how the family budget was distributed approximately. The largest monthly expenses were for groceries - more than 94 rubles, housing rent - over 58 rubles, incidental expenses (repairs, washing, distribution "for vodka", etc.) - about 45 rubles, clothes and shoes - 40 rubles, the payment of a servant - 35 rubles About 23 rubles a month were spent on teaching children and books. It should be noted that since 1908, professors' children who studied at the university were exempted from tuition fees.
The professors' salary was increased by 50% only in January 1917, when the cost of living in the empire rose sharply as a result of the First World War. Therefore, the raging inflation in the country immediately depreciated the long-awaited increase in monetary content.
Preferential professorial pensions
everything is known by comparison. And in pension matters too. Thus, a military rank at the beginning of the 20th century had to serve in the army for 35 years to receive a pension in the amount of a full monetary allowance. For length of service from 25 to 34 years, a half-size pension was awarded. At the same time, a professor with 25 years of service in an educational or scientific department received a full pension in the amount of a salary. And for 30 years of blameless service, the professor was entitled to a pension in the amount of full maintenance, which included a salary, apartment and canteen payments. However, such privileges extended only to professors of the imperial universities.
All questions on the appointment of pensions were set out in the "Charter on pensions and lump-sum benefits for the department of a scientist and educationalist" and in separate provisions that supplemented it. According to general rules, upon resignation, a professor could count on another rank or other encouragement or reward.
By the way, pensions for professors of the Women's Pedagogical Institute of the Department of Institutions of the Empress Maria (VUIM) were assigned on special conditions. After 25 years in the academic service, the professor could be left for another 5 years. It was possible to extend it for the next five years. A professor who served for 30 years received a pension instead of maintenance. In addition, he was assigned a monetary reward of 1,200 rubles a year at the expense of the salary for his position for a period of 5 years.
At the same time, full members of the Academy of Sciences and their families enjoyed pension rights granted to university professors and their families. Special privileges extended only to those who received pensions from the Academy of Sciences - they continued to receive it even when they went abroad.
Pension privileges for distinguished professors
University charters provided for the right of professors' colleges to elevate to the "highest academic degree of honorary doctorate" without any tests and dissertations "famous scientists who have become famous for their scientific works." According to the Russian historian A. E. Ivanov, there were about 100 such "honorary doctors" in Russian universities. However, these high-profile academic titles did not provide any special privileges or benefits.
It was much more attractive for professors to receive special titles. At the end of the 19th century, the title of "Honorary Professor" was established in some Russian universities. The professor could become its owner only after having worked 25 years in teaching positions at one university. At the same time, the imperial universities had the honorary title "Honored Professor", which eventually became generally recognized among all universities in the empire. Those awarded this title were the elite of the professors of the Russian Empire.
In addition to the recognition of the merits and respect of colleagues, such a title gave quite tangible pension benefits. At the same time, they were presented only upon resignation and compulsory length of service of at least 25 years in scientific and educational positions. At the same time, in recent years it was necessary to serve in professorships. The main advantage of honored professors was that when they returned to the head of the department or when they entered any other service, they retained a pension in excess of the salary they received.
Other professors with equal length of service, but did not have such a title, continued to serve at the university at retirement age, did not receive pensions in excess of their regular salary. Even in cases where they were allowed by law to combine the payment of pensions and receiving salaries, ordinary professors were allowed to receive only half of their assigned pension.
However, all retired professors retained the rights to order pensions. The size of the pension payment depended on the status of the order and its degree. Therefore, payments for orders at times varied significantly. For example, a person awarded with the Order of St. Stanislav of the 3rd degree was given 86 rubles, and the holder of the Order of St. Vladimir of the 1st degree received an order pension in the amount of 600 rubles. It is worth noting that many of the professors were awarded orders. For example, according to the historian M. Gribovsky, out of 500 full-time professors and teachers who served in domestic universities in the 1887/88 academic year, 399 people had one or another order.
In the case of resignation due to "completely upset in the service of health", the full pension was assigned to the professor with a length of service of 20 years. If the disease was recognized as incurable, then the pension was assigned even earlier: with a seniority of up to 10 years in the amount of a third of the pension, two-thirds of the length of service up to 15 years and a full pension with a seniority of over 15 years.
It should be noted that the pension rules for professors of other state (departmental) and private higher educational institutions were different. Often, only the size of the staff salary of the head of a particular educational institution was indicated, and from it was counted for professors and other positions of a given university. For example, the director of the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry in New Alexandria could count on a pension from a salary of 3,500 rubles.
A number of departmental, religious and private educational institutions had their own pension rules. For example, since the church was not separated from the state, the professors of theology of theological academies of the department of the Orthodox confession also received pensions from the treasury. The right to a pension for educational service in theological academies was acquired according to the general rule. The length of service of 25 years or more determined the full salary of the pension, for service from 20 to 25 years the pension was assigned in half.
Elite of Distinguished Professors and Their Fates
Among the honored professors of St. Petersburg University, for example, at one time were the famous historian and archaeologist Nikodim Pavlovich Kondakov, the outstanding Russian botanist Andrey Nikolaevich Beketov, the historian Ivan Petrovich Shulgin. All of them rose to the rank of privy councilor in the scientific and pedagogical field and were repeatedly awarded orders of the empire. In addition, Shulgin and Beketov in different years were rectors of the capital's university.
At Moscow University, among the honored professors of the late 19th - early 20th centuries, world famous scientists worked. Among them were the founder of aerodynamics, the actual state councilor Nikolai Yegorovich Zhukovsky, the famous historian Privy Councilor Vasily Osipovich Klyuchevsky, the founder of many areas in medicine, physiology and psychology, the actual state councilor Ivan Mikhailovich Sechenov, the recognized Russian historian Privy Councilor Sergei Mikhailovich Soloviev. All of them have gained worldwide fame as outstanding Russian scientists.
As a rule, all holders of the title "Honored Professor" were simultaneously members of academies in their scientific profile and actively participated in the social and charitable life of the empire. True, there were among the elite "honored" and those who tried to combine scientific and pedagogical work with political activity. Among them are such well-known names of the outstanding Moscow professor - naturalist and researcher of photosynthesis Kliment Arkadyevich Timiryazev, as well as the Honored Professor and then the Rector of Tomsk University, the famous botanist and geographer Vasily Vasilyevich Sapozhnikov. Both professors took the most direct part in the political life of the country after the October events of 1917. True, on different sides of class confrontation. Timiryazev, who previously shared Marxist ideas,joined the Bolsheviks. And Sapozhnikov took the post of Minister of Public Education in the government of Admiral Kolchak.
Some representatives of the "professors' elite", finding themselves in an extremely difficult life situation, chose the path to emigration. There were a lot of those who simply did not survive the war and revolutionary hard times. Be that as it may, the Russian state has suffered irreparable losses for the scientific gene pool and has lost its former leadership positions in a number of scientific areas.
Nowadays, the honorary title of Honored Professor has been returned to scientific and pedagogical practice. For example, since December 1992, it has again been included in the award system of Moscow University. The title "Honored Professor of Moscow State University" is awarded by the Academic Council of the University to professors who have an uninterrupted 25-year scientific and pedagogical experience of service within the walls of Moscow State University. In this case, you must have worked as a professor for at least 10 years. The recipient is presented with a corresponding diploma and an award badge.
Author:
Mikhail Sukhorukov