Mark Tullius Cicero (born January 3, 106 BC - death December 7, 43 BC) - Ancient Roman politician, orator, philosopher, consul.
Childhood and youth
Mark Tullius Cicero was born on January 3 in an estate near Arpin. His family belonged to the class of horsemen. Cicero received a good education under the guidance of his parents. Then his father brought him and his younger brother Quintus to Rome, where he had his own home, and sent him to study at a public school with the best Greek teachers. At that time, the Greek poet Archias lived in Rome, who was engaged in explaining the works of Greek poetry to the wealthy Romans.
Cicero's father was not afraid of expenses in order to entrust his promising son to this mentor, and the 15-year-old boy was so much addicted to poetry that he tried his hand at it, not without success. His youthful poems were experiences that led Cicero to his real vocation - eloquence, in which he later distinguished himself with such extraordinary art.
At the age of 16, according to Roman custom, a child's dress was publicly removed from Cicero, and he was dressed in a man's toga. During this celebration, he was accompanied by all the friends and clients of the family to the forum, and from there to the Capitol, where they received a solemn dedication. From that time on, Cicero began to take care of acquiring the knowledge that is necessary for holding public office.
Training
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Such sciences included eloquence and a comprehensive knowledge of government and Roman law. Cicero studied Roman law under the guidance of remarkable experts, both Scovolus, an augur and a priest, listening to their conversations with great attention. At the same time, he engaged in rhetorical exercises with great zeal. Every day, Cicero read, wrote or translated something and, if he got acquainted with any wonderful work, then every time he repeated aloud the entire content and order of development of the main idea of the book or in front of himself, and even more often before a meeting of his friends; this he did until very old age.
This kind of intensive training was interrupted only for a very short time, when Cicero in 89 took part in a campaign during the Allied War. At the end of the campaign, Cicero immediately resumed his scholarly pursuits and paid particular attention to philosophy. Philosophy was first taught to Cicero by the Epicurean Phaedrus, then by the academician Philo, and finally by the Stoic Diodotus. Cicero studied the works of the great Greek philosophers and tried to assimilate their views on the gods and the world, on the purpose of man, on the essence of the soul, on truth and justice, on virtues and vices, on laws, manners and customs, on government institutions and education.
He was engaged in comparing their teachings with each other, entered into conversations about the subjects studied with experienced people and listened to their explanations of many difficult places in the works of other writers. Thanks to this method, Cicero soon acquired the art of speaking gracefully and coherently for hours on end, without preparing his speeches in advance. He did not interrupt his writing and thus at the same time was able to achieve a wonderful art both in writing and in oral presentation of his thoughts.
In order to practically prepare for eloquence classes, Cicero came to court sessions every day, where he could listen to accusatory and defense speeches. He chose the famous lawyer Hortense as a model in judicial eloquence. After such preparation, Marcus Tullius Cicero decided in the end to appear himself in public as a defender.
He acted as a lawyer for a certain Roscius from Ameria. He was accused of parricide, and everyone knew that the accusers were hiding Sulla's favorite Chrysogon, who bought the victim's property for a pittance. Cicero in his speech was not afraid to brand the almighty Chrysogon, and the young man was acquitted. Fearing persecution from Sulla, the young orator went with his brother to Greece and Asia Minor. Here he saw the sights of famous cities, visited the most famous, orators and philosophers, spent six months in Athens and daily practiced with the most skillful and experienced Greek teachers in philosophical conversations and ordinary conversations; at the same time he learned to speak Greek so well that a stranger was hardly noticed in him.
There, Cicero made a lifelong friendship with the Roman horseman Titus Pomponius, who for many years studied sciences in Athens and had the nickname Attica. On the way back, Cicero visited the island of Rhodes. There he was awarded the greatest praise for his art. At that time one of the famous teachers of eloquence, Molon, lived in Rhodes.
Cicero began attending his school. When he arrived, the teacher gave him a topic for speech without prior preparation. Cicero immediately began to speak and, in presenting and developing the topic, expressed such an abundance of thoughts, such a rare grace of expression and such a noble smoothness and euphony of speech that when he finished, the audience resounded with loud applause. Only Molon remained to sit silently in his chair, and this worried the young speaker. But when one of the disciples asked Molon about the reason for his silence, he answered: “You have grieved me greatly, Cicero; your ancestors took away our freedom, property and power, but left us the glory of art and intelligence. You are taking this glory with you across the sea."
The beginning of a political career
Meanwhile, Sulla died. Cicero returned to Rome and began to practice law until he reached the much desired 31, the age when, according to Roman law, he received the right to seek the title of quaestor, the lowest public office. In order for the people to get acquainted with the candidates, these candidates walked among the people for some time, greeted each citizen in his name (while using the services of slaves who knew all citizens in the face) and in a friendly shake of the hand asked to vote for them on election day. They wore a white toga called the "toga candida", hence the name "candidate" that has survived to this day.
Cicero, who had long been loved for his speeches, was chosen by an overwhelming majority to one of the 20 Quaestor positions that were handed out every year. Each proconsul and each praetor received such a quaestor in his province, and Sicily fell by lot to Cicero (in 76 BC). With his disinterestedness, justice and courteous treatment, Cicero earned such a general disposition there that when the city of Sicily departed, they elected him as their patron (patron) in Rome.
Only upon reaching the age of 36 was it possible to obtain the next state position - the title of aedile. Until this time, Cicero was engaged in the conduct of court cases. The most famous of these was the case against Verres. This Verres, as a praetor, for 3 years robbed Sicily: he took out statues from churches, expensive paintings and carpets from private houses, took bribes at every opportunity. The Sicilians turned to Cicero as their patron, with a complaint about Verres. Cicero made a fiery and convincing speech in court, and Verres, despite the fact that Hortensius himself was his lawyer, was forced to retire into exile.
In 69, Cicero was elected an aedile. Those who held this position were obliged to observe buildings, streets, markets, public games. Supervising the games was a rather costly responsibility. In addition to government spending on performances, the aediles had to spend their own funds. The aediles used this circumstance to gain popularity. The people took this into consideration, and subsequently the aediles were rewarded either by the appointment to higher posts, or by the provision of wealthy governorships to the administration. With these expenses, Cicero stuck to the middle between extravagance and avarice, and during the year of his correction of the aedile post he was able to earn the love and respect of his fellow citizens.
Mark Tullius Cicero makes a speech in the Senate
Then Cicero had to wait another 2 years again before getting the right to seek the next post - praetor. At that time there were 8 praetors, they were the presidents of the courts and, according to their rank, took first place after the consuls. In this judicial office, Cicero had the opportunity to show in the best light both his justice and his knowledge of the laws. The general approval he earned in this position increased his fame and made his way to the consulate easier. He devoted all his free hours to defending his friends when they were accused in the courts of other praetors, daily exercises in eloquence, conducting extensive correspondence and listening to famous Greek orators who periodically visited Rome and gave their lectures here.
Finally, Mark Tullius Cicero reached the age of 43, before which no one could have been a consul. Already a year earlier, Cicero, in a white toga, began to tirelessly rotate among the citizens, tried to win the favor of the most influential of them, and mainly was able to win over Crassus, Pompey and Caesar, these three powerful persons of that era, to his side.
On election day, happiness favored Cicero, and he was chosen on the very first vote in 63 BC.
“At the same time, he uncovered a conspiracy to assassinate himself, as well as to overthrow the Republic with the help of a foreign army led by Lucius Sergei Catiline. Cicero achieves a declaration of martial law and expelled Catiline from the city with four passionate speeches, which are still the best examples of his rhetorical style.
Catiline fled and began calling for a coup d'état, but Cicero was able to force him and his supporters to publicly confess their guilt before the Senate. The conspirators were executed without any trial, and this will torment Cicero for many years.
End of Cicero's political career
60 BC - Cicero rejected Julius Caesar's offer to join the First Triumvirate, which at that time included Julius Caesar, Pompey and Mark Licinius Crassus, because the orator was confident that the Triumvirate would undermine the foundations of the Republic.
58 BC - Publius Clodius Pulcher, tribune of the people, issued a law that threatened to exile anyone who killed a Roman inhabitant without trial. Therefore, Cicero is exiled to the Greek Tressalonica. Thanks to the intervention of the newly elected tribune Titus Annius Milo, Cicero is returned from exile.
57 BC - the speaker returned to Italy. Cicero is no longer allowed to engage in political activities, so he took up philosophy.
Between 55 and 51 BC. he wrote treatises "On oratory", "On the state" and "On laws."
After the death of Crassus, the Triumvirate disintegrated, and in 49 BC. Caesar with his army crossed the Rubicon River, invaded Italy. Here begins a civil war between Caesar and Pompey. Cicero, though reluctantly, supported Gnaeus Pompey. Unfortunately, in 48 BC. Caesar's troops were victorious, and he became the first Roman emperor. He granted pardon to Cicero, but did not even allow him to get involved in political life.
Death of Cicero
44 BC - in the Ides of March, as a result of a conspiracy of a group of senators, Caesar was killed. And again the struggle for power began, the key figures in which were Mark Antony, Mark Lepidus and Octavian.
Cicero makes speeches, "philippics", named after the Greek orator Demosthenes, who called the inhabitants of Athens to revolt against Philip of Macedon and urged the Senate to support Octavian in his struggle by forgiving Mark Antony. But Mark Antony, Lepidus and Octavian came to an agreement to share power among themselves, which means that each of them will give out the names of their likely opponents.
Cicero tried to flee to Italy - but unfortunately too late.
Mark Tullius Cicero was killed on December 7, 43 BC. e. on the orders of Mark Antony, while trying to escape to Italy.