In the 17th century, Western Europeans began to actively visit Muscovy, as well as explore the routes from Europe to the other side of the continent through Muscovy and Siberia, as a possible alternative to the dangerous, long and expensive water route. Well, perhaps the main reason for their interest in Muscovy and what was behind it was the search for new sources of natural resources and the opportunity to profit from it. Why exactly in the 17th century Europeans were inflamed with such unbridled curiosity and thirst for knowledge? Probably because in the 16th century the conquest of Siberia by Yermak took place, and the way through these territories was opened for those who had previously been ordered to enter there. When the entrance opened, Europe did not fail to take advantage of it. Leaving us as a legacy numerous descriptions of their observations and adventures, experienced by them in a foreign country. One of these enterprising Europeans was the German merchant Adam Brand (pre. 1672-1746). In 1692 he was included in the embassy, as secretary of Chosen Idas, a Dutch businessman sent by the Russian tsars Ivan and Peter Alekseevich to Beijing to negotiate the border between China and Russia in favor of the Russians, and free trade between the two countries. Well, along the way, explore the ethnological and economic situation in that region. Well, along the way, explore the ethnological and economic situation in that region. Well, along the way, explore the ethnological and economic situation in that region.
To whom did Peter 1 send his ambassador
The Dutchman is sent as a representative of Russia to negotiate with a third state in the interests of Russia. Why substitute for Peter, if he had been his own before that? The Chinese emperor, to whom the ambassador was heading, was called Bogdykhan. The Great Soviet Encyclopedia says that this was the name of the Chinese emperors of the Ming dynasty. But here is what Nikolaas Witsen writes about Bogdykhan in his book "Northern and Eastern Tartary":
Read more about the Tartar emperors of China in an article with this title. Niuhe is obviously the Nikan kingdom. Image of the Nikan and Bogda kingdoms on the map of Remezov:
Fragment of Remezov's map.
All the names on this map have been translated into Dutch for a reason. The fact is that this map and atlas of Siberia was made by Remezov by order of the Head of the Siberian Order, Dutch by origin, Andries Vinius (Andries Andriesz Winius - 1605-1673) Who in 1627 together with his brother arrived in Russia and became there adviser to the young Tsar Mikhail (Fedorovich Romanov (1596-1645) - the first Russian Tsar from the Romanov dynasty). It's a one-to-one history similar to the history of famous architects of that time. The only difference is that, unlike those architects, about most of whom practically nothing was known in their homeland (This is partially described in the series of articles "Old Russian Architecture in Kiprianov's illustrations"), Vinius is known no less than Witsen with whom they, in fact,consisted of consanguinity. It was at Witsen's request that Vinius ordered the production of maps of Siberia to Remezov in 1697. I think that Remezov did not make these maps from scratch, but also from the maps he already had in his possession. From which later all foreign maps were redrawn, which we now have the opportunity to study. Only Russian names have already been removed from them.
But I got distracted. Returning to Bogdykhan, it is clear that Bogdykhan is a position, not a specific person, but referring not to the Chinese Ming dynasty, but to the Tartars living in the Far East. There is such a "Gramata, given from Yakutsk, for its presentation, through Khabarov, to Prince Bogda, after the first return of Khabarov from the Amur, in 1650" An excerpt from it:
Further in the letter it says that he will become with Prince Bogdai and other princes, with his wives, children for their disobedience, so that other Daurian princes, seeing this punishment, become obedient and obedient without a fight. He also indicates how much specifically he is going to send for this purpose people and weapons from among the military Russians who are in the Siberian state, as well as the Yakuts, Tungus, Yukaghirs and others subordinate to their Imperial Majesties, to the military battle of people familiar. Full text.
Such an appeal was written to Prince Bogdai by the father of Peter 1. Did this prince have anything to do with the Chinese emperor Bogdykhan, to whom Peter 1 sent his ambassador? In any case, both of them were representatives of the Bogdai kingdom. But such a letter was sent from Siberia to the Supreme Minister of the Great Sovereign His Majesty Bogdykhanov in 1720:
From the correspondence of the Siberian governor of the times of Peter I with the government of China.
Although it is written in Russian, but it's a pity, I can't read what is written there. And the Bogdai Khan, apparently, could, just like his ancestor or compatriot Prince Bogdai could read the letter sent to him by the Great Tsar Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. Although they may have had translators. In the same book, Nikolaas Witsen gives the following excerpt from Bogdykhan's letter to Ivan and Pyotr Alekseevich:
Apparently, ambassadors were sent by the Russian tsars to Bogdykhan repeatedly, and possibly regularly? Because this passage is about 1686, and the ambassador, which was discussed at the beginning of this article, was with Bogdykhan in 1693. As for what the Mongolian and Tartar languages of that time were, it is described in the article "Petroglyphs and ancient writing of Siberia" In short: it was most likely Sanskrit, or rather Old Russian language, from which Sanskrit and subsequently other languages originated.
Continental trade routes from Europe to China
The ambassador of Peter the Great went to Beijing by the way already well known at that time, many times trodden and described in detail. Description of the routes from Europe to China in the 17th century from the book by Nikolaas Witsen "Northern and Eastern Tartary":
In general, the road through Siberia, although it passed through the northern cold territories, was preferred for travelers of the 17th century. Everything was different while Tartaria was alive. Here is what the Dutch researcher Bruno Naarden writes about this:
Here we mean, of course, the Tartar Empire, not the Mongol. What Marco Polo himself wrote about, including describing the well-established message throughout Tartary. More about this in the article "Ancient India and not only": The Royal Road and the postal service And it is described in great detail by Kadykchansky.
Retreat: Renaissance
The end of the Middle Ages, this is, apparently, the 16th century, when the Tartar Empire collapsed into Great, Small, Independent, and the continent plunged into wars over the division of what was left of this once large country. Someone tried to seize what previously did not belong to him, someone - to protect what they tried to take away from him. The same time is called in Europe the Renaissance, i.e. Renaissance. Which, according to the official version, falls on the last quarter of the 16th century and in some cases - the first decades of the 17th century. When interest in ancient culture suddenly blossoms, its "revival" takes place. And the reason for the flourishing of this interest, apparently, is the suddenly appeared ruins, so numerously represented on the canvases of the artists of that time. Civilization is reviving after the cataclysm, but in a different capacity. Inventory the restexplore the new contours of the changed continents, populate territories that have been freed from the previous population and have become empty. The king is dead, long live the king!
What kind of cataclysm was it? Pole shift perhaps? In the previous article, descriptions of the destruction caused by clearly something stronger than even the most powerful earthquake were given. And it is obvious that as a result of this cataclysm, Tartaria suffered more than Europe. There at least ruins remained, which were then sketched and restored. In Siberia, there are no more of them, only animal bones interspersed with human bones and fragments of houses, covered with layers of clay.
Description of the journey from the Tsar of Muscovy to the Tartar Khan, 1654.
We return to the trade routes of the 17th century. This, apparently, is a description of the journey of the embassy sent by Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who 4 years earlier wrote an angry letter to Prince Bogdai:
Long trip turned out -1.5 years only from Tobol. There were shorter ones. In this description, the same route was covered in 10.5 months:
Adam Brand, Journal of the Embassy from Muscovy to China
Returning to the journey of Ambassador Chosen Idas, which began in Moscow on March 13, 1692. Both he and his secretary, Adam Brand, kept a diary throughout the journey, which lasted only 18 months from Moscow to Beijing. I will cite excerpts from the diary of Adam Brand, which is called “Journal of the Embassy from Their Majesties Ivan and Peter Alekseevich, Emperors of Muscovy, etc., through the country to China, through the provinces of Ustyug, Siberia, Dauria and Great Tartary, to Beijing, the capital of the Chinese Empire. And also some interesting remarks about Russian products."
The title page of the magazine.
I will cite, in my opinion, interesting excerpts from this magazine:
This happened before the trip of Peter 1 to Europe, where his probable substitution took place. Those. being very young: in 1692 he was only 20 years old, for some reason he already had a love for the Lutherans. And his grandfather began to actively invite foreigners to Russia. Those. with the departure of the last Rurikovichs and the arrival of the first Romanovs, the gates were opened for the entry of Europeans into Russia. This is how the natural resources of Russia are described in this journal:
Those. these are components for making gunpowder. It is correct that their withdrawal was prohibited.
It is not clear what he meant by saying that the Russians are deprived of silver deposits? That these deposits are concentrated mainly in the Urals, Eastern Siberia and the Far East, or that then foreigners still did not know anything about them? Maybe. But this gap was more than filled later. Already in the next, 18th century, Peter Simon Pallas wrote a report on Russian minerals, including silver, in several thousand pages. This is partially covered in my previous article. And what does he mean by old graves - Scythian barrows? Was silver in them contained in such quantities that it could be seriously talked about as mining? Another big confusion about bismuth mining.
Bismuth is a silvery-white metal with a pinkish tint, the main, most powerful diamagnetic in nature, i.e. it repels from both poles of the magnet and is able to levitate: Diamagnetic levitation- Science experiment:
It is currently used in metallurgy to obtain low-melting alloys, in the production of ceramics, glass, and optical devices. It is also used as a wound healing and antiulcer drug, in the manufacture of decorative cosmetics. As a cover for road signs, due to the glow effect when headlights are directed at them. But what could it have been used for in the 17th century? In some kind of alchemical experiment? Further on natural resources:
It is not clear what he meant by claiming that there are no birds in Muscovy? In terms of making a profit? Even Marco Polo wrote about excellent falcons, different species that live in Tartary.
Retreat: rhubarb
Nicolaas Witsen also pays much attention to describing the export of rhubarb to Europe. Apparently, in the 17th century, it was a very important food product. Until recently, at least until the end of the 20th century, Europe, in particular countries such as England, Germany and the Netherlands, themselves produced rhubarb in large quantities (so in 1981, 32 million kg were produced.) Most of it consumed fresh, but 10 percent was used in the canning industry. Perhaps in the 17th century it was consumed fresh or used for conservation. Rhubarb is a storehouse of vitamins, and, apparently, a good remedy for scurvy. In addition, rhubarb from eastern Siberia, northwestern China, the Himalayas, Tibet has some powerful medicinal properties. Source.
Illustration for the book N. Witsen "Northern and Eastern Tartary".
Witsen on rhubarb:
Adam Brand describes in his journal their journey, full of difficulties and dangers, from Moscow to Beijing and back, which lasted a total of 3 years. How could diplomatic negotiations be conducted between countries at that time, if you had to wait three years for an answer during communication? And how could the Tatar-Mongols travel 500 km a day on their wild horses to raid the cities of Western Europe? Lightly, without carts, feeding on the blood of their horses, which at the same time fed on dry grass, digging it out from under the snow with their hooves (I wonder from what depth?). Why do so many continue to believe this? Are the doubters laughed at?
Author: i_mar_a