In the middle of the 10th century, the Khazars in the Crimea were replaced by the Pechenegs who came from the east.
The Pechenegs were the eastern nomadic tribes of the Kengeres, who created the Kangyui or Kang state to the south of the Ural mountains between Balkhash and the Aral Sea. The tribes that inhabited it were called in Turkic "Kang er" - Kangyur men, and from the VIII century they were called Pechenegs.
In the X century, the Pechenegs consisted of eight tribes, in the XI - of thirteen. Each tribe was headed by a khan, who was chosen, as a rule, from one clan. The military system of the Pechenegs, as later the Polovtsians, consisted of separate detachments, built in the form of a wedge. Carts were set up between the detachments. There were reserves behind the carts. With a strong pressure from the enemy, the nomads put the carts in a circle, covered them with bull skins and fought off enemy attacks from them. It was very difficult to smash the carts and break through and cost a lot. Through narrow, winding passages between the carts, the Pechenegs made unexpected attacks, smashed the enemy and went back. The warriors were armed with a bow with a quiver of arrows, a saber that appeared instead of a heavy and not always convenient sword in a horse fight, a spear and a lasso. The rivers of the Pechenegs swam on sacks made of bovine skins and stuffed with hay,holding on to the horse. The attacks were carried out mainly in winter, on the ice of rivers. With them, the nomads drove a large number of cattle, which provided them with food and drink, leather for clothing and tents. The Pechenegs and Polovtsians ate meat and millet, drank milk. Millet was thrown into a boiling pot, then thinly sliced meat was added there and the resulting broth was eaten. Rice cooked in milk was considered a delicacy. On solemn days they drank kumis. Nothing is known about the beliefs and family life of the Pechenegs. Nothing is known about the beliefs and family life of the Pechenegs. Nothing is known about the beliefs and family life of the Pechenegs.
At the end of the 9th century, due to drought, part of the Pechenegs from the Ural River basin passed through the Volga region to the Danube. Another part of the Pechenegs, accompanied by the Tork and Berendey tribes, settled in the Black Sea steppes, expelling the Magyar tribes that had been roaming there since the 5th century, and for a long time existed as an independent force, controlling the lands from the Volga to the Danube.
The Pechenegs first appeared in Crimea in 882 and by the middle of the 10th century they occupied the entire Crimean peninsula, defeating most of the villages, except for Chersonesos and cities on the Kerch peninsula. Crimea was desolate, the population went to the mountains. Archaeological excavations indicate that most of the Crimean settlements of this period died in fires. The Pechenegs quickly became intermediaries in trade between Chersonesos and the Old Russian state. They served as guides for trade caravans, and brought the plundered goods to Chersonesos themselves. In addition to the established fee, they always demanded gifts for themselves, for wives and children. The Arab historian El-Bakri wrote about the Pechenegs that they were very hospitable to foreigners who came to trade. When foreigners or people fleeing from Constantinople captivity arrived to the Pechenegs, they were offered a choice:or stay with the Pechenegs on an equal footing and choose a wife for themselves, or escort them to their place of residence. Byzantium used the Pechenegs as a mercenary army. Emperor Constantine Porfirodny wrote in his treatise "On the management of the empire": "When the Roman emperor lives in peace with the Pechenegs, neither Russia, nor the Turks can make hostile attacks on the Roman state … And the Pechenegs, connected by friendship with the emperor and prompted by him through messages and gifts, they can easily attack the land of Russians and Turks, take their women and children into slavery and devastate their land … Another tribe of the named Pechenegs is adjacent to the Kherson region. This tribe is engaged in trade with the Khersonites and sends their orders and the tsar to Russia, Khazaria, Zikhiya and other countries there, receiving, of course, the agreed remuneration from the Khersonites for such service,depending on the nature of the service and the work assigned to it, on the sale of silk fabrics, sling, muslin, velvet, pepper, red Parthian skins and other similar things that are in demand in those countries, according to the terms of the transaction between each Khersonite and each Pecheneg separately, which will offer the first and which will go to the second. These Pechenegs, people who are free and do not recognize, one might say, any law other than their own, never fulfill any commission without remuneration. "people are free and do not recognize, one might say, any other law besides their own, never execute any commission without remuneration. "people are free and do not recognize, one might say, any other law besides their own, never execute any commission without remuneration."
Tatar rider looking out for prey.
Starting from the 9th century, the so-called path from the Varangians to the Greeks began to present a special benefit for Slavic merchants. From the Baltic Sea, merchants went to Lake Ladoga (Nevo), passing into the Volkhov River, Lake Ilmen and the Lovat River, from where there was a portage to the upper reaches of the Dnieper, and then a direct road to the Black Sea. At the intersection of these routes, Novgorod in the north and Kiev in the south grew up. Through the Black Sea, active trade with the Mediterranean countries was carried out, primarily through Surozh (this is how the largest trade center of the Black Sea region was called in Russia - modern Sudak). From there, silk fabrics from Venice, Turkey, Egypt and Syria, metals and precious products, parchment ("haratya" in Russian) came to Russia. Russia exported furs, leather, wax, honey, fish tooth (walrus bone). Russian trade needed strong points on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
For the first time, Crimea entered the sphere of political and commercial interests of Kievan Rus in 988, after the capture of Tauric Chersonesos by the troops of the Kiev prince Vladimir.
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The Byzantine emperors Vasily II and Constantine VIII, being in a hopeless position due to the internal rebellion raised by the Byzantine military leader Varda Foka, turned to the Kiev prince Vladimir Svyatoslavich for military assistance. An agreement was signed, according to which Prince Vladimir ensured the suppression of the Phocas rebellion - and for this the two emperors had to marry him, subject to his acceptance of Christianity, their sister Anna. This marriage to a Byzantine princess put Vladimir Svyatoslavich on a par with the emperors of Byzantium. In 988 Vladimir was baptized, and in 989 his troops liquidated the Phoca uprising. The Byzantine emperors, as usual, tried to deceive the Kiev prince without giving up their sister. Realizing this, in the fall of 989, Vladimir besieged and took by storm the Tauric Chersonesos,strategic center of Byzantium in the Crimea and the Black Sea region, announcing that this is a warning before the campaign against Constantinople. Anna was sent to Chersonesos, where the wedding took place. After Vladimir's marriage to Princess Anna, he returned Chersonesos to Byzantium and went back to Kiev.
Around this time, the Prince of Kiev Vladimir or his father Svyatoslav founded the Tmutarakan principality of Kievan Rus on Taman and part of the Kerch Peninsula with the city of Korchev (present-day Kerch). From this historical period, the Slavs from Kievan Rus gradually settled throughout the Crimea. Old Crimea, Sudak, Mangup, Chersonesos - it was here that the Slavs constituted the most significant part of the population.
Grand Duke Vladimir Svyatoslavich.
The capital of the Tmutarakan principality was located in the area of the village of Taman on the Taman Peninsula. Tmutarakan as a fortress arose on the site of the Khazar city of Tamatarhi in the 960s, after the campaigns of Svyatoslav Igorevich. Earlier there was the ancient city of Hermonassa, founded in the VI century BC. e. Kasogs, Yases, Goths, Khazars, Polovtsians, Russians lived here. The first time Tmutarakan is mentioned in the "Tale of Bygone Years" in 988, when Vladimir Svyatoslavich formed a principality and planted his son Mstislav there, annexing Tmutarakan to the Old Russian state. Tmutarakan quickly turned into the second most important port after Constantinople, through which almost all sea and steppe trade routes of the 11th-12th centuries passed. Mstislav Vladimirovich, who ruled the principality until 1036, strengthened and expanded the borders of the principality. The tribes of nomads who did not reckon with any authority were reckoned with him. At the end of the 10th century, the remains of the Bosporus kingdom restored by Byzantium became part of the principality. In 1792, a marble slab was found on the Taman Peninsula, on which it was knocked out in 1068: "In the summer of 6576 (1068 - A. A.) Indict 6 Gleb Prince measured the sea on ice from Tmutarakan 'to Korchev 14,000 fathoms." Mstislav began to gradually move away from Kiev. After the war of two brothers Vladimirovich - Mstislav and Yaroslav, who divided Kievan Rus along the Dnieper, Tmutarakan firmly became part of the possessions of the Chernigov principality, headed by Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. Since the 60s of the XI century, his sons Gleb, Roman and Oleg Svyatoslavich reigned in Tmutarakan. The Tmutarakan Diocese was established in the city, the Episcopal Cathedral of which was the Church of the Mother of God built by Mstislav.who did not reckon with any authority. At the end of the 10th century, the remains of the Bosporus kingdom restored by Byzantium became part of the principality. In 1792, a marble slab was found on the Taman Peninsula, on which it was knocked out in 1068: "In the summer of 6576 (1068 - AA) Indict 6 Gleb Prince measured the sea on ice from Tmutarakan to Korchev 14,000 fathoms". Mstislav began to gradually move away from Kiev. After the war of two brothers Vladimirovich - Mstislav and Yaroslav, who divided Kievan Rus along the Dnieper, Tmutarakan firmly became part of the possessions of the Chernigov principality, headed by Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. Since the 60s of the XI century, his sons Gleb, Roman and Oleg Svyatoslavich reigned in Tmutarakan. The Tmutarakan Diocese was established in the city, the Episcopal Cathedral of which was the Church of the Mother of God built by Mstislav.who did not reckon with any authority. At the end of the 10th century, the remains of the Bosporus kingdom restored by Byzantium became part of the principality. In 1792, a marble slab was found on the Taman Peninsula, on which it was knocked out in 1068: "In the summer of 6576 (1068 - AA) Indict 6 Gleb Prince measured the sea on ice from Tmutarakan to Korchev 14,000 fathoms". Mstislav began to gradually move away from Kiev. After the war of two brothers Vladimirovich - Mstislav and Yaroslav, who divided Kievan Rus along the Dnieper, Tmutarakan firmly became part of the possessions of the Chernigov principality, headed by Svyatoslav Yaroslavich. Since the 60s of the XI century, his sons Gleb, Roman and Oleg Svyatoslavich reigned in Tmutarakan. The Tmutarakan diocese was established in the city, and the Church of the Mother of God built by Mstislav became its episcopal cathedral.
The troops of Svyatoslav Yaroslavich, at the request of Emperor Michael VII Duca, pacified Chersonesus in 1073, which had raised an uprising against Byzantine rule.
With the intensification of the Polovtsian invasions of Russia at the end of the 11th century, Tmutarakan was actually cut off from Kievan Rus and lost its independence, since 1094 it had the Polovtsians, Byzantium, the Golden Horde, Genoa and Turkey as masters.
After the defeat of the main forces of the Pechenegs in 1036 by the troops of the great Kiev prince Yaroslav the Wise, they began to leave the Black Sea region to the Danube and the Carpathians. The Cumans became the masters of the Northern Black Sea region, in 1091 inflicting a crushing defeat on the Pechenegs.
Kimaks or Kypchaks formed as a Turkic-speaking people from the descendants of the Hun tribes who roamed in Central Asia, and the European Dinlin tribe who lived in the Bronze Age in Altai and the Minusinsk Basin. The Kipchaks settled in the basin of the Irtysh and Tobol rivers, and in the middle of the 11th century they penetrated into the Dnieper region and the Northern Black Sea region. In Russia, for their light hair color, they were called "Polovtsy" (in Russian, chaff means straw), and in the West - Comans or Cumans. On the borders of Kievan Rus, the Polovtsians appeared in 1054, after the occupation of the Khazar territories west of the Dnieper. Until 1115, alternately, the Polovtsian and Russian troops won victories, until finally the great Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh, having received full power, transferred the war to the steppe and defeated the Polovtsians with the united army of Kievan Rus. After that, the Polovtsians and the Day-Russian state often begin to act as allies. Under the great Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh, Kievan Rus consisted of the Kiev, Pereyaslavl, Smolensk, Vladimir-Volynsk, Suzdal-Novgorod, Chernigov, Polotsk and Cherven principalities. By the middle of the XII century, the united Kievan Rus split into fifteen large semi-state formations, which, in turn, were split into estates, which were lands legally registered as the possessions of certain princely families. In the period from the XI to the XVI century in Russia there were more than a hundred inheritances. Southern Russia, constantly exposed to the raids of nomads and losing strength in the strife of the princes, quickly lost its former importance. By the middle of the 13th century, the title “Grand Duke of Kiev” no longer existed. The center of the economic and political life of Russia moved to the northeast, to the basin of the upper Volga, the then outskirts of the Rurik power. In 1054, as a result of the division of the possessions of Yaroslav the Wise, the Rostov-Suzdal land passed to Novgorod, and in 1074 - to the son of Yaroslav the Wise Vsevolod Yaroslavich and his descendants. In 1108, Vsevolod's son Vladimir Monomakh founded the fortress city Vladimir, the future capital of the principality, on the Klyazma River. After his death in 1125, the Rostov-Suzdal land began to take shape as a sovereign semi-state formation. In the period between 1132 and 1135, Rostov and Suzdal finally separated from Kievan Rus. The security of the territory, the main road along the Volga - that is what contributed to the development of Vladimir Rus. The election of Andrei Bogolyubsky to the table in Vladimir in June 1157,son of Yuri Dolgoruky and grandson of Vladimir Monomakh - this is the date that marks the official act of an independent state formation in the northeast, which later became the political center of the entire Russian land. At the time of the son of Yuri Dolgoruky, the Grand Duke Vsevolod the Big Nest, Vladimir Russia reached Lach Lake and the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north, the upper Volga in the west, the Oka in the south and the Unzha River in the east. The Russian princes no longer exerted influence on the processes taking place in the Northern Black Sea region. Vladimirskaya Rus reached Lach Lake and the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north, the upper Volga in the west, the Oka in the south and the Unzha River in the east. The Russian princes no longer had any influence on the processes taking place in the Northern Black Sea region. Vladimirskaya Rus reached Lach Lake and the upper reaches of the Northern Dvina in the north, the upper Volga in the west, the Oka in the south and the Unzha River in the east. The Russian princes no longer exerted influence on the processes taking place in the Northern Black Sea region.
By 1116, the Polovtsians finally defeated and subdued the Pechenegs. Since that time, the Polovtsians have become the only masters of the steppes of the Northern Black Sea region. There are 11 known Polovtsian tribes. The name of each tribe changed along with the name of the khan. After the death of the old khan, the Polovtsians elected a new one, usually from the same family. At first, the khan did not have strong power, it was in the people's assembly.
Arab sources called the Polovtsian "Kipchaks", and the place of their settlement - "Desht-i-Kipchak", which includes the steppe from the Dnieper to the Volga, the Ciscaucasia, part of Khorezm, almost all of the Northern Black Sea region and Crimea. Rabbi Petahya, who lived in the 12th century, wrote that in good weather the Polovtsians could distinguish objects that were at a distance of a day's journey.
Crimea, except for the Kerch Peninsula and Chersonesos, fell under the rule of the Polovtsy in the middle of the 11th century. The main stronghold of the Polovtsians in the Crimea was Sudak, then called Sugdeya. The Arab historian Ibn al-Athir wrote about Sudak: “This is the city of the Kipchaks, from which they receive their goods, and ships with clothes come to it, the latter are sold, and girls and slaves, Burtas furs, beavers and other items are bought on them, who are in their land. Trade in goods from the Russian lands, Europe, Africa, Asia Minor, India and China passed through Sudak. Part of the Black Sea was named Sudak. The fame of the rich city spread all over the world and in 1222 the city was plundered by the troops of the Seljukid Ala-ad-din Kei-Kubad, the ruler of the Rum Sultanate located in Asia Minor. The pretext for the military expedition was the complaints of Seljuk merchants against Sugdeya, which allegedly did not allow them to trade. By order of the Sultan, Emir Husameddin Choban landed with a large detachment near Sugdeya and defeated the united Polovtsian-Russian army, which was trying to cover the city. Sugdeya was captured, the Sultan's garrison appeared there, which was in the city before the Tatar pogrom of 1239. Many Polovtsians served in Khorezm, whose sultans married the daughters of the Polovtsian khans. When the Tatar-Mongols invaded Khorezm, Sultan Jelal ed-Din called for help from the Polovtsian detachments. For this alliance the Polovtsians were persecuted by the Tatar-Mongols. After the Battle of Kalka in 1223, the Polovtsian tribes began to leave the Northern Black Sea region and go to the Transcaucasus and to the Russian lands, entering the service of the Kiev princes. Daniil Romanovich Galitsky used the Polovtsian soldiers as light cavalry during his campaigns against the Yatvingians and Lithuania.
On April 13, 1204, the capital of Byzantium, Constantinople, was stormed and plundered by the crusaders. From the imperial wreckage, the Nicene Empire in the west of Asia Minor and the Trebizond Empire in the northern part of Asia Minor, near the Black Sea, were created. Byzantium no longer controlled the southern and southwestern Crimea, which changed the political situation on the Crimean peninsula.
Zander.
Chersonesos began to pay tribute to the Trebizond empire, but its power on the Crimean peninsula could not be compared with the power of Byzantium and was in fact purely nominal. Crimea is being settled again. Numerous remains of 11th century settlements with a water supply system and many wild cultivated plants have been found on the peninsula. Many basic crafts are developing. Chersonesos becomes the largest city in Crimea with a population of five thousand inhabitants. After the restoration of Byzantium in 1261, Chersonesus again submits to the empire.
In the middle of the 12th century, in the south-west of the Crimean peninsula, the Byzantine emigrant from the wealthy and aristocratic Armenian family of Gavrasov Constantine, exiled in 1140 from Trebizond to Chersonesos, created the Mangup principality of Theodoro. Theodoro was inhabited by Alans, Greeks, Goths and Karaites, the descendants of the Cimmerians and Taurus. The borders of the principality ran along the Black Sea coast from Balaklava to Alushta, and in the north - to the Kacha River. The capital of Theodoro was the city of Mangup, a former Gothic fortress located seventeen kilometers from modern Bakhchisarai. Mangup was built on an inhabited place near the Teshkli-Burun cape: a settlement existed there in the 3rd-4th centuries, and a feudal castle in the 5th century. Mangup quickly became the political and economic center of the southwestern Crimea. The second major city of the principality was the Funa fortress, the family nest of the Gavrases,built at the foot of Mount Demerdzhi, not far from Alushta. In 1427, on the site of the cave city of Inkerman, located near modern Sevastopol, the Theodorians built the Kalamita fortress, which defended the only seaport of the Avlita principality at the mouth of the Black River. A building inscription with the name of the head of the principality Alexei is kept in the Bakhchisarai Museum. The principality of Theodoro interfered with Genoese trade, and in 1434 Genoa's troops captured Calamita and burned it. The fortress was rebuilt again and helped to repel the attacks on Theodoro by the Genoese and Mongol Tatars. Theodoro had wide international connections; the son of the Moscow Grand Duke Ivan III was to marry the daughter of Prince Isaac. The principality had about 200,000 inhabitants and had 30,000 houses. But in 1475 the principality ceased to exist, completely destroyed by the Turks,and its territory became directly Turkish and turned into a Turkish kadilyk - district.
Kerch.
Simferopol.
In the Crimea, there were several other small feudal formations, in particular, the Kyrk-Orsk and Eski-Kermen princedoms.
