The growth of industry in Russia began in the 1830s and 60s. After some recession in the 70s and 80s, in the 90s, industrial production began to rise especially intensively. In addition, the peasant reform gave a powerful impetus to the development of handicraft production and latrine trades. In 1890, the number of factory workers was 1.45 million people. (D. Mendeleev, collection "Factory Industry of Russia"), and 7-8 million people were employed in handicraft production. (M. Kovalevsky, "The Economic System of Russia"). In addition, some peasants in their free time from field work became "otkhodniki", ie. left the village or village to work, or engaged in handicraft at home. Given that the population of the Empire was then about 120 million, it turned outthat at least 15% of the economically active population was somehow involved in industrial production.
As you can see, the number of people employed in handicraft production in the 1890s was about 5 times higher than the number of factory workers. And in terms of total production volumes, there was an approximate parity between the factory and handicraft sectors of industry. According to D. I. Mendeleev, in 1890 the total volume of factory production was 1.6 billion rubles. The volume of handicraft production in the same period was estimated differently by different researchers: 1 billion rubles. (S. A. Kharizomenov), more than 1 billion (V. I. Lenin), 1.5 billion (E. N. Andreev), 2 billion rubles (Ya. Ya. Polferov). To this we must also add the volume of products produced by artisans who worked alone or "flying" teams for individual orders, mainly in construction, which did not lend itself to accounting at all.
This was approximately the picture of employment in the industrial and handicraft sector of the Russian economy at the end of the 19th century. Since this review is not economic, but still ethnographic, materials will be presented here not so much about factories, factories, workshops and their products, but about people employed in this area, about their living and working conditions. It is clear that it is unattainable to cover the immense and show all aspects of the life of the working and artisan population in all regions of Russia. But I managed to scrape together something. As always, only primary sources were used: materials from publications of the second half of the 19th century and photographs of the same period.
I have a special personal interest in this topic. My great-grandfathers, whom I know about, were artisans: Ignatiy Vasilyevich Vorobyov was a blacksmith in the Stary Oskol suburban village of Gumny, and Efim Konstantinovich Strelkov kept a shoemaker in the Yamskaya settlement. Grandfather, Ivan Ivanovich Boldyrev, before the revolution, studied plumbing in a private workshop in Taganrog, then, being a station worker, in his free time he worked as a roofer, and in retirement, to a ripe old age, worked as a lone handicraftsman on a tin business.
First, let's take a look at a series of portraits of workers and artisans, taken by different photographers in different regions of Russia. Here is the oldest one found.
Market on Kitay-Gorod. Unknown author, 1898.
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The peasant against the background of the hut. Photo by V. Carrick, 1870.
A peasant on a cart. Photo by V. Carrick, 1870.
Peasant family. Arkhangelsk province, White Sea coast. Photo unknown author, 1890s.
Peasants of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Photo by J. Raoul, 1870s.
The peasants of the Oryol province. Photo by J. Raoul, 1870s.
The peasants of the Oryol province. Photo by J. Raoul, 1870s.
This is what a West Siberian carpenter looked like in 1867. Photo by V. Karrick.
This is Aksentyev, the superintendent of the gold mine along the Talaya river in the vicinity of Yeniseisk.
Photo by an unknown author, 1887.
In the 1890s, an unidentified photographer took a whole series of portrait photographs of workers from the Yaroslavl, Kostroma and Vladimir provinces. Here are some of them.
Factory workers of the Yaroslavl province. Alexey Ivanov and Alexey Kiselev.
Factory workers of the Yaroslavl province. Fyodor Galkin and Fyodor Smirnov.
Carpenters of the Pokrovsky district of the Vladimir province. Daniil Maksimov (Novoye village) and Ivan Egorov (Pernovo village).
Painters from Kostroma lips. Nikolay Svinin (Chukhloma district) and Dmitry Gavrilov (Galich district).
Carpenters of the Pokrovsky district of the Vladimir province. Petr Efimov (village Golovino) and Vladimir Ivanov (village Lipni).
Craftsmen of the Yaroslavl province: stove-maker Yakov Gladyshev (Yaroslavl district) and blacksmith Pyotr Sobolev (Romanovsky district).
Cooper from Kostroma province. Kirill Sirotkin (Galich district) and a contractor from the Vladimir province. Sergey Gavrilov (Pokrovsky district).
And this is an unnamed cooper from Kostroma, the author of the photo is also unknown.
Photo taken in the 1890s. It is likely that the cooper Kirill Sirotkin, pictured above, was familiar with his fellow countryman and colleague.
The portrait of the Murom photographer Sazhin (1894)
depicts Deev, an assistant to the engine driver, with his wife.
The main branch of the economy of the Russian Empire was agriculture. The main branch of agriculture is grain production. And an indispensable component of the production of grain was mills, which can also be attributed to the number of industrial enterprises, and mill workers - to workers.
This is how a typical mill looked inside in 1873 (World Illustration, No. 13).
Although fishing can be considered a branch of agriculture, commercial fishermen in the 19th century led a very different way of life than peasant farmers. Fishing artels were, in fact, production collectives and independent economic units. So we will also consider professional fishermen workers.
This is a fishing pin (stakes driven into the bottom of the reservoir) at the confluence of the Volga into Lake Sterzh. Photo by E. P. Vishnyakov, 1892.
Fishing camp on the Volga near Samara. Photo by an unknown author, 1892.
Pomor fishermen. Photo by an unknown author, 1898.
Russian fishermen in the Baltic. Photo by an unknown author, 1896.
Ostashkovsk fishermen, Lake Seliger. Photo by M. Dmitriev, 1898.
Representatives of another "intermediate" profession, which can be attributed to artisans, are horsemen. Now many people think that this was the name for careless and ignorant doctors. But this craft was respected and highly demanded. Konoval was called a veterinarian-artisan who, without a special veterinary education, was engaged in the treatment of livestock, mainly horses. The main occupation of the konovals was ostriching, that is, castration, of stallions and males of other animals. Such an operation was absolutely necessary, since young males who were not eaten were restless, dangerous, and did not gain weight well. As a matter of fact, the very word "konoval", or, as they also said, "horse clad", explained the nature of this operation.
Konovaly, Arkhangelsk province. Mezensky district. Photo by an unknown author, 1890s.
Most often the artel was the organizational basis for construction work. The members of the artel shared in the general income and took on collective responsibility. Often artels arose on the basis of communal, compatriot, family and national ties; over time, these ties expanded. The management of the artel was carried out by the headman (contractor), who was elected at a general meeting from among the most energetic, knowledgeable and experienced members of the artel.
Construction workers in Tyumen. Photo by J. Kennan, 1885.
House renovation in Nizhny Novgorod. Plasterers. Photo by A. Karelin, 1870s.
Of course, not amateur artels worked on the construction of the Transsib. The need for skilled workers was met by the recruitment and transfer of builders to Siberia from the center of the country. According to V. F. Borzunov, in different years up to 15 thousand workers from European Russia were involved in the construction of the highway, Siberian peasants and townspeople were also involved, many exiles, convicts and soldiers worked. At the height of work on the construction of the Transsib, 89 thousand people were employed.
Transsib. Sleeper laying. Photo by I. Tomashevich, 1898.
Transsib. Striking rails. Photo by I. Tomashevich, 1898.
Now let's move on to real industrial production. First, what can be called the chemical industry: the production of charcoal, potash, tar and turpentine.
The main consumer of charcoal was ferrous metallurgy, it was used both in the food industry and in everyday life. The coal burners were engaged in the production of coal.
First, preparatory work was carried out: felling and storage of timber, usually from April to September. From the end of September until the onset of cold weather, the peasants dragged the logs onto the current and piled them up. In the middle of the pile, the logs were positioned so that a pipe was obtained. Several vents went down to the pipe. The pile was covered with turf about 7 cm thick and covered with earth. A pile (they also said "boar") was ignited from a pipe. After that, it was impossible to leave the kuren, day or night. The charcoal burners were required to maintain an optimal level of combustion intensity so that there were no embers left, but also so as not to burn the logs. In late autumn, the peasants broke heaps, raked coal, and in winter they took it to the factory.
Charcoal girls. Photo by William Carrick, 1870s.
And now we have to find out who the Budaks are. No, no, I didn't mean anything bad or offensive. This profession is quite worthy, and the people who were involved in budgeting were pretty, which is noticeable in the photo below. Those who made potash (potassium carbonate) were called Budaks. It is a white granular powder obtained from wood ash. In the forest, trees of certain species (mainly oak) were cut down, burned, and the resulting ash was soaked in the spring, covered with it on logs and burned again in large heaps - "buds" (from which the word "6udak" was derived). Received potash, which was used in the production of glass, liquid soap, in dyeing fabrics and was widely sold abroad. Mainly people from Belarus were engaged in the budget fishing.
Budaki. Photo by Maxim Dmitriev, 1895.
Now a little about the production of resin and turpentine. The tar-smoking technology is briefly described in the collection "Handicraft trades in the Nizhny Novgorod province" in 1896 (compiled by MA Plotnikov).
Tar smoking at Vetluga, Makaryevsky district of Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
From outdoor production, we will move on to household and family crafts. Let's start with the simplest ones, requiring no sophisticated equipment or additional premises. Here is what MA Plotnikov, already mentioned by me, writes about one of such trades: “Weaving bast shoes, which is a common occupation in villages for the elderly and the poor, in some places acquires industrial significance, attracting the labor of adult workers along with all family members. The profitability of fishing is based solely on the absence of expensive tools of production, on the extreme lengthening of the working day and on the joint work of all the forces of the family. Children from 8 years old weave ropes, from 10 they learn to weave, from 16 they work properly. Together with everyone they get up at 12 o'clock in the night in winter and with short rests work until 6-7 o'clock in the evening. Weaving of baskets was also considered an uncomplicated and not requiring large capital investments, which was mainly done by women and adolescents.
Weaving bast shoes, p. Spasskoye, Semyonovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
Weaving baskets, p. Bor, Semenovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
About net knitting:
Weaving fishing nets, Reshetina village, Balakhninsky district, Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
One more craft, purely female:
Embroidery of patterns on canvas, Katunki village, Balakhninsky district of Nizhny Novgorod province. Photo by an unknown author, 1890s.
The Nizhny Novgorod province was, on the whole, probably the most "advanced" in terms of trades, and as for the spoon fishing, there were no equal for the people of Nizhny Novgorod, or rather, the residents of Semenovsky district, throughout Russia.
Lozhkarnoye production, Deyanovo village, Nizhny Novgorod province. Photo by M. Dmitriev, 1897.
Grinding the handle of spoons, Dyakovo village, Semenovskiy district of Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
Spoon painting, p. Khvostikovo, Semyonovsky district. Unknown author, 1890s.
In addition to wooden spoons, the Semyonov craftsmen were engaged in the manufacture of wooden dishes and toys.
Painting wooden dishes, p. Merinovo, Semenovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
For rope-and-rope production, certain devices were already needed, although specific premises were not required for this. For example, in the Kursk province, this trade was organized as follows.
Rope production. Unknown author, 1895.
The production of felt boots required not only special tools, but also the presence of a special room - "washing".
Handicrafts in the Nizhny Novgorod province, comp. M. A. Plotnikov, 1896.
These are "katals". Semyonovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
These are "washers". Interior view of the wash. Unknown author, 1890s.
Those who were engaged in pottery, in addition to skills and abilities, needed a room for a workshop - not to dump the clay directly on the floor in the house where you live, and a special stove was required. And no special tool was required.
Potters. The village of Bogorodskoye in the Gorbatovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
Working on a potter's wheel. The village of Vladimirskoe, Makaryevsky district, Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
Leather production was technologically quite complex.
Leather production. Planed. The village of Bogorodskoye in the Gorbatovsky district of the Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
Saddlery production. Development of belt harness. Unknown author, 1890s.
Khomutin production. Unknown author, 1890s.
Glove production. Unknown author, 1890s.
Now about the most complex handicrafts associated with metal processing.
Blacksmiths have always stood out from the general mass of the people and were usually respected, fairly wealthy people. One of the most common surnames in the world is based on this profession - the all-Russian surname Kuznetsov, as well as Ukrainian Koval, Kovalev, Kovalchuk, Kovalenko, Polish Kovalsky, Kovalchik, English, German, French, Spanish - Smith, Schmidt, Ferran, Herrero …
Anchor forge. The village of Bor, Semenovsky district, Nizhny Novgorod province. Photo by A. Vilborg, 1890s.
And this is the forging of nails in the village of Krasnaya Ramen, Semyonovsky district, Nizhny Novgorod province. Unknown author, 1890s.
M. A. Plotnikov, who has been quoted many times by me, speaks about the Krasnoramensk nails.
Krasnoramensky nails. Unknown author, 1890s.
Large centers of artisanal metalworking were the villages of Bezvodnoye in the Nizhny Novgorod district (now the Kstovsky district) and Pavlovo in the Gorbatovsky district (now the town of the same name).
Anhydrous specialized in the production of chains, hooks, fishing rods, weaving of metal cloth and wire drawing.
Forging chains in the village of Bezvodnoye. Unknown author, 1890s.
Pulling metal wire. S. Bezvodnoe of the Nizhny Novgorod district. Unknown author, 1890s.
Metal cloth fabric. S. Bezvodnoe. Unknown author, 1890s.
The village of Pavlovo was famous for its plumbing. Here they made locks, knives, scissors, forks, razors, surgical instruments, and artistically designed metal items.
Scissors production workshop in the village of Pavlovo. Unknown author, 1890s.
Knife establishment in the village of Pavlovo. Unknown author, 1890s.
Manufacture of copper locks. S. Pavlovo. Unknown author, 1890s.
The factories in Bezvodny and Pavlov gradually industrialized and acquired the character of a factory. But these villages had a different fate. In Bezvodnoye, crafts disappeared, and in Pavlov, on the contrary, they were transformed into industrial production. Now Pavlovo is a large machine building and metalworking center.
Now is the time to move on to real industrial production. The manufacturer Pavel Akimovich Ovchinnikov (1830 - 1888) put the traditional handicraft industry on an industrial basis - the production of silver items. It all started with a workshop opened in 1851. And in 1879, according to the magazine "World Illustration", the factory's annual turnover was more than a million rubles. The factory employed 150 foremen and 115 apprentices, who, in addition to special education, were given general education. The factory had a hospital and a loan office. which issued loans to employees at a negligible percentage.
The sculptural class of the P. A. Ovchinnikov silverware factory. "World Illustration", 1879, №21.
Gymnastic class for the students of the P. A. Ovchinnikov factory. "World Illustration", 1879, №21.
And these are the metallurgical plants of the Urals. This is already a real heavy industry.
Cast iron production from Russia's first closed-chested blast furnace at the Sukhogorsk plant. "World Illustration", 1876, №21.
Foundry furnaces of the Rezhevsky metallurgical plant. Photo by an unknown author, 1880.
Pouring molten ore from the forge at the Kasli plant. World Illustration, 1886, no. 46.
And at the end of the review, let's go back to Nizhny Novgorod. It just so happened that it was the Nizhny Novgorod province that took the central place in my review. And it happened due to the fact that it was in Nizhny that many practicing photographers worked, one of whom was Maxim Petrovich Dmitriev (1858 - 1948), who is considered the founder of national journalistic photojournalism. Here are some photographs of Nizhny Novgorod industrial facilities by M. Dmitriev. It is hardly possible to examine in detail the people depicted on them, but the production environment is clearly shown.
Plant of the Oksko-Volzhsky society "Portland-cement". Photo by M. Dmitriev, 1895.
Locomotive workshop of the Sormovsky plant. Photo by M. Dmitriev, 1890s.
Sormovsky plant. Prayer service on the occasion of the release of the 100th steam locomotive. Photo by M. Dmitriev, 1899.
And the review dedicated to workers, artisans and handicraftsmen of the second half of the 19th century will be closed by this photograph of M. Dmitriev.
Resting workers. Photo by M. Dmitriev, 1890s.