Chapter 1. Old maps of St. Petersburg
Chapter 2. Ancient tale in the north of Europe
Chapter 3. Unity and monotony of monumental structures scattered around the world
Chapter 4. Capitol without a column … well, no way, why?
Chapter 5. One project, one architect or cargo cult?
Chapter 6. Bronze Horseman, who are you really?
Chapter 7. Thunder stone or submarine in the steppes of Ukraine?
Chapter 8. Falsification of most of the monuments of St. Petersburg
Promotional video:
Chapter 9. Peter the First - an ambiguous personality in the history of the whole Europe
Chapter 10. For what to say thank you, Tsar Peter?
Chapter 10-1. This "happy" tsarist era or the House of Holstein in Russia
Chapter 10-2. Why was the chain mail and cuirass replaced with stockings and a wig?
Chapter 11. Ladoga Canals - witnesses of a grandiose construction
Chapter 12. What did you really want to say, Alexander Sergeevich?
Chapter 13. Alexander Column - we see only what we see
Chapter 14. Alexander I. The Secret of Life and the Secret of Death
Chapter 15. Masonic symbolism of St. Petersburg
Chapter 16. Antediluvian city, or why the first floors in the earth?
Chapter 17. Axonometric plan of St. Petersburg - a witness of the great flood
Chapter 17-1. Flood witnesses. Antiquity in paintings and drawings
Chapter 18. Who are you, builders, or why are there so many inconsistencies among historians?
"Where is the city from?" Chapter 19. A Few Words About Floods
Historians at every step tell that illiterate, half-naked, and half-starved bearded men from Novgorod, Pskov, Beloozero under the guidance of overseas engineers not only built solid houses, but also managed to create so far unique pieces of art, in no way inferior to the world famous Egyptian masters. Our great-grandfathers knew how to perfectly cover the surface of the stone with plaster, ideally imitating natural stone, and cast entire structures that look indistinguishable from natural granite, which, however, are not. It is impossible to make a cut in three planes by machine. This will not be done by any stone cutter in the world, because neither a circular saw nor a band saw is suitable for making 3D monolith structures. This can be done exclusively by casting into a finished form - formwork.
Here we also see a decorative element that was on the formwork, or was squeezed out into a detail that has not yet been completely petrified by a matrix - a cliche.
But more recently, in Russia, such construction techniques were used incredibly widely!
“I conquered marble and made it flexible like wax” - Bernini, 17th century Italian sculptor. The great masters have many secrets hidden - they were among glassblowers, blacksmiths, violin makers, cooks, etc. And it’s not surprising if the secret went to the grave together with the last master, who was unable (or unwilling to) transfer the technology to descendants. This could have happened with stone casting and ancient concrete.
These works of art are in no way inferior to those of Egypt.
This is not granite, this is also a high-quality plaster made of polymer material.
Another fact is interesting: in pre-Petrine times, the main component of export was potash, useless by today's standards. Probably up to 90% of everything that was exported from Pskov to Europe was precisely potassium carbonate (K2CO3). And this is a product obtained precisely from wood ash. But at the beginning of the 18th century, Peter I issued a decree on a complete ban on the export of potash from Russia, without his personal knowledge, on pain of life-long penal servitude. At that time, potassium carbonate was a strategic raw material. If in Egypt, potassium carbonate was used for the production of artificial granite, then in Russia there were countless deposits of sodium carbonate, which served as a binder for geopolymer concrete. And it was the date of the Decree that became the answer to the question of when "antiquity" actually appeared. It turns out that all the antiquity of Europe and the Middle East was created not so long ago (and not before our era),and for its production, unthinkable volumes of the main substance, playing the role of a binder, were required in a solution, which was then passed off as natural marble, granite, malachite, diorite, etc. In addition, it should be noted that potash was the main component for the production of glass and … POWDER! Now they pump out gas, but before they took out potash. And Peter decided to turn off the faucet in Europe for the production of ceramic granite and gunpowder keramomarazzi.
In Pushkin's "The Tale of Tsar Saltan, about his glorious and mighty hero, Prince Gvidon Saltanovich, and the beautiful princess Swan", it is not so difficult to find a hint of the potash trade. Read for yourself the place where merchants report to the Tsar and Prince Guidon three times:
“We have traveled all over the world, Traded in sables
Black-brown foxes;
We traded horses
All Don stallions
We sold damask steel, Pure silver and gold
We did not trade for nothing
Unspecified item;
And our path lies far:
Head east …
It was the "unspecified goods" that merchants traded so profitably, not only not being disclosed, but also subject to the strictest accountability to the tsar.
This information suggests that the antiquity of many buildings is simply sucked from the finger, and we do not know much, someone thinks that we do not need to know this.
The sculpture is called "The Drunken Satyr" 200 BC. Museum of Italy (copy from the original).
Previously it was believed that it is marble, but a stupid student decided to take a picture of himself, sitting on the lap of a sculpture created by an "unknown sculptor", and accidentally injured his leg. not to myself, but to satire!
Sculpture "The Abduction of Proserpine". Marble. Height 295 cm. Borghese Gallery, Rome. Lorenzo Bernini created this masterpiece when he was 23 years old. In 1621. "I defeated marble and made it pliable like wax."
An even more complex allegory is the monument (to the father of Prince Raimondo - Antonio de Sangro (1685-1757). The Italian name of this monument Disinganno is often translated into Russian as "Disappointment", but not in the current generally accepted meaning, but in Church Slavonic - "Deliverance from the spell" (Chapel of San Severo, in Naples)
Deliverance from the Enchantment (after 1757) is by Francesco Quirolo and is his most famous work. The monument is valuable for the finest work on marble and pumice, from which the net is made. Quirolo was the only one of the Neapolitan craftsmen who agreed to such a delicate work, while the rest refused, believing that at one touch of the cutter, the network would crumble into pieces.
A little about that, a hundred hides a marble shell …
Marble column (reinforced with rebar) 1075. Cyprus. Draw your own conclusions.
Fragments of the Pantheon columns.
This is the formula of our great-grandfathers preserved today.
“Get sand from the river spit.
Burn a hundred trees, collect ash.
Take clay and stir until a milk consistency is obtained.
Add slaked lime to liquid clay.
In the second bucket, mix the sand and ash 100 to 1.
Mix everything and mix well.
Pour into the mold."
After that, you can sculpt antiquity according to the most "do not want"
Here are modern technologies, I give a link: GEOPOLYMERIC CONCRETE.
Geopolymer compositions in antiquity
Handicraft recipes
I am copying a fragment of a handicraftsman's handbook published in 1931. There are a lot of recipes, right down to how to give a plaster statue the look of antique bronze, there is granite, there is marble - we non-culturists never dreamed of such diversity.
If you follow the link, you can download the entire book.
II. Artificial marble and granite
1. Artificial marble according to Borchardt
1.1. The mass is prepared from pure quartz sand, carbonic lime, talc and gypsum, to which finely ground coloring matter can be added. The sand used must consist of pure silica, and for this purpose it is washed and cleaned of all organic constituents. After complete drying of the sand, 5-6% of tripoli is added to it. Then, 6-7 carbon dioxide, 3 talc, 4 gypsum, 3 feldspar are added as a binding agent for every 100 sand. All components are mixed together with a small amount of water. The resulting mass is laid out in molds and, after complete drying, is fired in hot white heat in an oven without a blower.
1.2. Take 80 gypsum and 20 carbonic lime, finely grind, mix and knead with a mixture consisting of 1000 distilled water, 1080 sulphate lime.
1.3. They take 1000 water, 1440 glue, 1000 sulfuric acid. Then they put the dough in molds and, when it hardens, take it out, dry it for two hours, grind and polish in the usual way. Finally, the object is dipped in a 70 ° heat linseed oil bath, after which it is dried and smeared with stearin. Aniline paints are recommended for coloring.
1.4. Artificial marble pale yellow to white. 30 coarse white sand, 42 chalk, 24 rosin, 4 burnt lime.
1.5. Greenish. 28 coarse white sand, 42 chalk, 2 ultramarine blue, 24 rosin, 4 burnt lime.
1.6. Bodily. 28 coarse white sand, 42 chalk, 1 ultramarine blue, 1 cinnabar, 24 rosin, 4 burnt lime.
2. Imitation marble
2.1. According to Van der Steen. First, prepare water in which gypsum must be ground by adding wood glue and resin to it; the glue is usually dissolved in warm water, and the resin in a warm turpentine bath. In the water prepared in this way, gypsum is diluted so that the entire mass is sufficient to fill the mold. After that, the paints necessary for coloring the marble are added to the mixture; paints should be prepared in special containers. Prepared in this way and colored marble is then poured into molds of plaster, cement or rubber for even plates on glass or stone boards. This marble layer is applied 4 mm thick, then a layer of dry gypsum is sieved to remove the excess water used to dissolve the colored gypsum. As soon as this layer of powdered gypsum is thoroughly moistened with water,contained in excess in colored gypsum, a thin layer of well-dissolved, but not colored gypsum is poured onto it, and a canvas or thinner is poured onto it. Then follows a layer of dissolved gypsum, to which crushed rubble is mixed. This last layer depends on the thickness you want to give to the object made of reconstituted marble. As soon as the mass hardens enough (after 6-8 hours), it is removed from the plate or taken out of the mold, wiped with pumice and the pores in the mass are filled with dissolved gypsum, painted in the main color of the cast object. To make the surface waterproof, it is treated with potassium silicate, and either immersed in a bath or smeared with liquid with a brush. When the mass is completely dry, the surface is polished, and the novelty of the polishing process is that it is polished with a swab,wrapped in a rag and soaked in specially formulated polishes:
2.1.1. White polish for light artificial marble: 100 bleached gummilac, 600 alcohol, 25 finely ground plaster.
2.1.2. Brown varnish: 100 orange gummilac, 600 alcohol, 25 finely ground gypsum. First, the polished object is wiped with a swab soaked in alcohol, then the polish is applied with another swab and continue to rub with a swab until some adhesion is noticeable. The resulting layer of polish is treated with the first swab soaked in alcohol until a completely smooth surface is obtained.
2.1.3. Black varnish. To do this, take a little black aniline paint on a rag. To achieve an even and very shiny polish, it is necessary to moisten the cloth covering the tampon from time to time with a few drops of oil.
2.2. By Size. Items made from ordinary limestone - vases, figures, etc., are heated for 12 hours, at a pressure of 5 atmospheres, with boiling water or steam. Then they are placed in a bath consisting of a solution of alum at 5 ° B., in which they remain from 1 day to several weeks. In this way, the stone acquires greater hardness and ability to perceive polish. If they want to paint the stone, then aniline dyes dissolved in water are added to the mass.
2.3. According to Ostermeier. Lime milk is mixed with finely crushed marble, or milk of lime with chalk, until a kind of gruel is obtained. Based on the study of Pompeian cement, Ostermeier recommends adding to this mass a sufficient amount of coarsely crushed limestone. This cement dries and hardens soon.
3. Imitation granite
Mix clean fine sand, pyrite or some other mass containing flint with freshly burnt and crushed lime in the following proportion: 10 sand or pyrite and 1 lime. Lime, quenched by the moisture content of the sand, corrodes the flint and forms a thin layer around each silicon grain. Upon cooling, the mixture is softened with water. Then take 10 crushed granite and 1 lime and knead into place. Both mixtures are placed in a metal mold so that the mixture of sand and lime forms the very middle of the object, and the mixture of granite and lime forms an outer shell from 6 to 12 mm (depending on the thickness of the prepared object). Finally, the mass is pressed and hardened by air drying. The coloring agent is iron ore and iron oxide, which are hot mixed with granular granite.
If they want to impart special hardness to objects formed from the above composition, then they are placed in potassium silicate for an hour and subjected to a heat of 150 ° C.
III. Various artificial masses
1. Albolite
To make this mass, magnesite is crushed and fired in pieces the size of a fist in retort furnaces, which are used in gas factories. Iron magnesite is ground on runners, sieved through a hair sieve and mixed with the appropriate amount of tripoli. From this cement powder, dissolved in water, ornaments can be made, as from plaster, but it cannot compete with plaster. But it has the invaluable property of giving, in combination with a moderately strong solution of chlorine magnesium, a solid and plastic mass. Mixed in the correct proportions albolite-cement mass, depending on its purpose, should have the consistency of a more or less thick slurry, which, under the influence of the temperature at which they work, gradually thickens, and after 6 hours. hardens. When the mass hardens so much that nail marks are still visible on it,then a self-heating process takes place in it, which is different depending on the size and thickness of the object being made; thick slabs are heated, for example, above 100 ° C. When casting large objects, this is a difficult drawback, and adhesive molds can only be used with great care. It is necessary to remove the object from the adhesive molds before the heating process begins. When casting small objects, heating is negligible, and therefore does not present an obstacle. The plasticity of the mass is unusually high. For plaster ornaments, the albolite mass has the advantage that if the plaster ornament is covered with a thin layer of albolite, repeating this until nothing else is absorbed, then the ornament becomes more hard from the outside.thick slabs are heated, for example, above 100 ° C. When casting large objects, this is a difficult drawback, and adhesive molds can only be used with great care. It is necessary to remove the object from the adhesive molds before the heating process begins. When casting small objects, heating is negligible, and therefore does not present an obstacle. The plasticity of the mass is unusually high. For plaster ornaments, the albolite mass has the advantage that if the plaster ornament is covered with a thin layer of albolite, repeating this until nothing else is absorbed, then the ornament becomes more hard from the outside.thick slabs are heated, for example, above 100 ° C. When casting large objects, this is a difficult drawback, and adhesive molds can only be used with great care. It is necessary to remove the object from the adhesive molds before the heating process begins. When casting small objects, heating is negligible, and therefore does not present an obstacle. The plasticity of the mass is unusually high. For plaster ornaments, the albolite mass has the advantage that if the plaster ornament is covered with a thin layer of albolite, repeating this until nothing else is absorbed, then the ornament becomes more hard from the outside.than the heating process will begin. When casting small objects, heating is negligible, and therefore does not present an obstacle. The plasticity of the mass is unusually high. For plaster ornaments, the albolite mass has the advantage that if the plaster ornament is covered with a thin layer of albolite, repeating this until nothing else is absorbed, then the ornament becomes more hard from the outside.than the heating process will begin. When casting small objects, heating is negligible, and therefore does not present an obstacle. The plasticity of the mass is unusually high. For plaster ornaments, the albolite mass has the advantage that if the plaster ornament is covered with a thin layer of albolite, repeating this until nothing else is absorbed, then the ornament becomes more hard from the outside.
In the same way, other materials can be given greater strength. There is no material more suitable for repairing sandstone than albolite cement. Years of experience have shown the practicality of lubricating houses with albolite. Inside houses it is very practical to lubricate stair treads, floors, etc. Wooden stairs outside are recommended to be coated with a layer of albolite.
2. Beerite
Beerite is a sculptural material invented by the sculpture Beer in Paris, suitable for both the smallest castings and the largest castings, conveying contours and lines with an accuracy that can never be achieved with plaster. The surface of the castings, which can also be polished, is pure white and has almost the same gloss and light reflections as natural marble. This mass is especially good for casting statues, giving, like marble, an impression of softness and vitality, thanks to the play of light and shadows. In fractures, beerite has a crystalline structure, which is characterized by a rather high hardness. The mass cast into a shape hardens after 1 hour and only in rare cases requires further processing. Beerite is composed of 100 marble dust, 10-25 glass powder, 5-10 powdered sieved lime,dissolved in liquid glass.
3. Marmorite
According to Losse, it is made from equal parts of finely ground, elutriated and red-hot magnesite and from a solution of magnesium sulfate. Both parts are mixed well and the mixture is poured into oiled molds. After hardening, the mass can be washed with warm soapy water. The solidified mass has the appearance of white marble and over time acquires its hardness, so that it can be used for casting busts, statues, etc. In this case, the same forms can be used that are used for plaster work.
IV. Painting, polishing and cleaning marble
1. Coloring of marble
1.1. As you know, all colored marbles are very expensive. In view of this, lately, artificial coloring of cheaper white marble has become very popular. The dyeing method is as follows: unpolished marble is laid horizontally and covered with a dyeing solution (see below) so hot that it still foams. The colorant then penetrates deeply into the marble and is held very firmly. The dye solution is prepared in alcohol. For staining in blue, litmus is dissolved in alcohol, and the amount of the latter is completely determined by the desired color density. For yellow color, a gummigut solution is used. And if on top of the first color (litmus) to start the second (gummigut), then you get an excellent green color.
A solution of alkanes, cochineal and other roots prepared in the same way stains the marble red. Finally, a solution in alcohol of equal parts of zinc sulfate, ammonia and yar-copperhead gives the marble a golden color. The result is a very spectacular mosaic made up of pieces of different colors of marble, painted in this way. In its beauty and non-linearity, it is in no way inferior to mosaics made of expensive types of marble, although it costs much less.
1.2. Not all paints are suitable for painting marble. In order for the paint to take and hold firmly, it must be prepared as follows: make a solution of borax and a vegetable dye, and then add a few drops of nitric acid or some nitric acid salt to this solution. For example, to paint the marble blue, prepare a solution of borax with indigo and add a few drops of nitrogen-iron salt (in the form of a liquid). For coloring in red, dissolve any red vegetable dye with brown and add nitric acid. By replacing the coloring matter with ink nuts, a black paint that is excellent and durable for marble is obtained.
Vii. Imitation of building stones
1. Artificial stone
1.1. 2 hydraulic lime, mixed with a solution of alum in 15 times the amount of water, 10 sand and 1 cement are mixed into a mass, which is pressed in molds and removed after 24 hours. The stones are ready for use after 14 days, but only become hard over time.
1.2. A mixture of 1 cement and 3 sand is dissolved with dilute sulfuric acid (100 water for 2 acids) and pressed under strong pressure. The stones are air-dried for two days, placed in dilute sulfuric acid (2 acids per 100 water) for 12 hours and dried again.
1.3. 2 Portland cement, 1 sand and 1 slag are mixed dry and then moistened with an aqueous solution of ferrous sulfate. The thick solution is pressed into molds, dried for weeks, two in a warm place, then dipped in water for 24 hours and finally dried for 4 weeks.
1.4. 10 quicklime is thoroughly mixed in 3-4 water, then 40-60 dry sand and 2.5-10 hydraulic cement are added and again well ground. Then the mass is pressed into molds.
1.5. 1 leached ash, 1 resin, 1/8 - 1/4 of flaxseed oil are heated in a kettle, with constant stirring, and poured into molds.
1.6. 15 l of glue water, 1/4 l of water, in which the wood glue was dissolved, and 1/8 kg of borax in powder are mixed with such an amount of gypsum to form a doughy mass suitable for pressing. By mixing dyes, a colored mass is obtained.
1.7. Mix 300 kg of sand or crushed stone, 75 kg of resin and 20 liters of wood tar with a sufficient amount of ground stones and add, depending on the desired color, Venetian red or gypsum, and heat up strongly.
1.8. 4 gravel and 1 cement, with the addition, if desired, of crushed stone, etc. are diluted with water. The mass is laid out in a mold, where a layer, approximately 1/2 cm thick, of 2 fine sand, 1 cement and 1 dry mineral paint in powder is placed on its surface. If they want to decorate the stone with a pattern on the surface, then the corresponding pattern is embedded on the bottom of the mold and the mentioned colored layer is placed on it. When the stone is almost dry, its surface is coated with diluted liquid glass. (Some streets in New York are paved with such slabs).
1.9. 30 silica sand and 1 lead oxide are mixed with 10 water glass and, if necessary, with a suitable coloring matter, pressed into molds, and then for 2 hours. exposed to red heat.
1.10. The hydraulic lime is placed in a basket that holds approximately 1/8 ton and immersed in a vessel of water, leaving in it until no more air bubbles rise. Then remove the basket from the water, allow the water to drain and cover the basket with an inverted iron cauldron. The edges of the boiler, standing on the floor, are sprinkled with ash all around so that air exchange does not occur under the boiler. The lime is left to stand for 12 hours, after which it turns into a fine powder. This powder is used for the manufacture of stones. 1 of this lime is mixed with water so that a liquid porridge is formed and then 2 1/2 crushed stone and 1/2 ash from coal, peat or leached wood ash are added. Stir the mass well and add more water so that the total amount of water used is 4 times the amount of lime. Pour the mixture into molds, where it soon hardens.
2. Volcanic building stones by Schroeder
The so-called volcanic building stones are prepared from coal slag and ash with the addition of hydraulic lime and other binders. The shredder uses 16 hydraulic lime and 1 Portlan cement for 100 coal ash or coal slag. This mass is milled, mixed well, and then pressed into molds. The advantage of this method consists in the advantageous use of unnecessary waste, the constantly increasing amount of which is often burdensome, in the significant strength of these stones with relative lightness, in high resistance to atmospheric influences and in low cost of manufacture. Many massive residential buildings and vaulted buildings have been built in Germany from these volcanic building stones.
3. Stone mass according to Mayer
First, mix 5 slaked lime with 5 previously highly hot lime. 1 of this mixture is mixed with 1 chalk, 2 sand, 2 quartz or glass powder, 6 crushed fluorspar into a powder and so much potash water glass (1.3 spar) is added to form a mushy mass that easily pours into molds and solidifies at 10-40 minutes. After drying in air, the cast objects are impregnated alternately with diluted water glass and hydrofluorosilicic acid. Similarly, you can treat a mixture of equal parts of glass in powder and fluorspar with concentrated water glass. For colored mass, Mayer recommends a mixture of 2 fluorspar, 1 quartz or glass, and 1 paint, ground with a concentrated solution of water glass.
4. Stone mass according to Steyer
Take fine quartz sand and add, depending on the desired degree of hardness, from 2 to 10% of finely ground lead oxide. The harder the stones should be, the more lead oxides are taken. To obtain a colored stone mass, add, depending on the desired color, the corresponding finely ground metal oxide. The entire mixture is then sieved to mix well. Then the mixture is only moistened with sodium or potassium water glass, stirred well again, pressed tightly or tamped into a mold and dried at moderate temperature. After drying, the mixture is fired, depending on the degree of hardness that they want to give to the manufactured object, in a more or less intense heat. It should also be noted that the liquid glass should not be contaminated with sodium sulfate, otherwise the stones will be weathered out already upon drying.
5. Stone mass according to Gefer
A fairly soft mixture of cement lime with potash water glass is suitable for this, to which a little river sand is added. The proportion of cement lime to river sand is 2: 1. When using this cement mass for repairing stone stairs, it is not necessary to beat off the trampled steps. The damaged places are moistened with liquid glass and a freshly prepared mass is applied to them, which is given the necessary shape of the steps. The mass dries up after 6 hours. and becomes hard like limestone.
6. Stone mass according to Schulte
4-6 sand is mixed with 1 hydraulic lime and 6% of dry liquid glass is added to the mixture, possibly finer than ground into powder. Then they are still thoroughly stirred and moistened with such an amount of water that from this mass it is possible to form stones of the desired shape. Approximately 10% water is required. The stones made of this mass are allowed to harden, which will take 1 -4 days, after which they are placed in a vat of water. Under the pressure of water, liquid glass powder, evenly distributed throughout the mass, dissolves and combines with lime, which also dissolves from water in a small amount into silica salt. When, after a few days, the water glass dissolves and turns an equivalent amount of lime into insoluble silicate salt, the stones are placed in water containing a 5% sodium carbonate solution. This converts the remainder of free lime into carbonic lime, while sodium oxide hydrate dissolves and is washed off by thoroughly washing the already hardened stones in water. The stones are then air dried. When using this method, an essential condition is that the water glass is in an undissolved state in the form of a powder, and then the stones should be treated with a solution of sodium carbonate only after all the water glass has dissolved and forms a silicic calcium salt with lime.and then the stones should be treated with a solution of sodium carbonate only after all the water glass has dissolved and forms a silicate salt with lime.and then the stones should be treated with a solution of sodium carbonate only after all the water glass has dissolved and forms a silicate salt with lime.
7. Stone mass according to Hayton
This method, used by the Victoria Stone Company in London, consists in mixing small fragments of granite with hydraulic cement and then, after forming and hardening, the mass is immersed in a solution of water glass. The fragments of granite are crushed, and for every 4 granite, 1 Portland cement is added and the dough is kneaded with water. This mass is poured into molds, left to stand for 4 days, and then poured over with 25% sodium silicate solution for two days. The artificial stones produced in this way are mainly used as building stones, stair slabs and sidewalks.
8. Stone mass according to Dumenil
1,100 gypsum, 10 hydraulic lime, 5 gelatin and 500 water. Gypsum and hydraulic lime are diluted in a vessel with gelatin and water, stirred well and the homogeneous mass is poured into wooden detachable molds, greased with gray soap. After 20-22 minutes. remove the stone from the mold and air dry it, which will take 14 days. If desired, drying can be accelerated with artificial heat. The stones can be painted in any color by adding a dye to the mass.
These artificial stones can be used for all kinds of construction work - for residential buildings, bridges, water pipes, etc. The stones cast from this mass have the same strength as natural stones, and, which is especially important, the walls built from such stones do not suffer from dampness. It goes without saying that the mass can be cast in any shape, and in this way a variety of architectural details can be produced.
9. Stone mass according to Lebrun
This method consists in the fact that hydraulic limestone is converted into fine powder, mixed with charcoal powder (3-4 hydraulic limestone per 1 coal powder). The mixture is ground with water into a dough and bricks are formed from it, which are fired in a lime kiln. After firing, the mass is turned back into a fine powder, and this powder, which Lebrun calls hydro, is the main material of his manufacture. The stones he produces are of two types. One grade consists of a mixture of hydro with sand in a ratio of 1: 3 and is used for the manufacture of architectural ornaments - columns, brackets, parapets, etc. The second grade, consisting only of densely rammed hydro, is used for paving slabs, etc. molded in iron molds with the addition of as much water as the molders use to wet the sand. Proventhat objects prepared from this mass retain their regular shape, resist friction and pressure, and are also insensitive to atmospheric influences.
Antonio Frilli (-1902) - Sweet Dreams (Carrara Marble) 1892. Recife, Instituto Ricardo Brennand.
One of the angels of the Staglieno cemetery in Genoa.
Satyr and Bacchante. Jean-Jacques Pradier, 1833.
Bathsheba. Benjamin Victor, 2013.
Leda and Swan. Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse, 1870. Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Fleeing from Pompeii. One of the monuments of the Ballarat Botanical Garden.
Archimedes. Simon Louis Bouquet, 1752. Louvre.
Girl. Crozatier Museum.
Girl with a dog. A sculpture from the Staglieno cemetery in Genoa.
Beatrice Cenci. Harriet Hosmer, 1857.
1915 year. Artificial marble
libgen.io/book/index.php?md5=f22176d81dbd26…
Artificial marble - preparing it and other artificial stones, as well as repairing, polishing and finishing marble. Sinelnikov N.
Ancient Hindus were also familiar with the technologies of casting concrete, marble and granite, here are photos of their Shravanabelagola temple.
These structures are more than one hundred years old, maybe not one thousand years old, and judging by the technologies of stone processing, ancient Indians were not just friends with lathes … There can not even be a question of manual stone processing, here at every step there is machine processing and casting. And history tells us that backward tribes lived in India, where the British exchanged gold and silver for colored glass, again the question arises: who to believe? Or, as they say, do not believe your eyes, believe what was said, by someone? I am tormented by another question, who is this SOMEONE?
Advanced technology 5,000 years ago?
Chapter 21. Author's speculations
Author: ZigZag
