I consider my story about the Cossacks incomplete without mentioning the Kalmyks. The article "Cossacks and the Cossack Horde" mentioned the Zaporozhye, Don, Astrakhan, Yaik, Greben, Siberian, Far Eastern, Tartar, Karakalpak Cossacks. But there is still a very large group of Kalmyk Cossacks. Those. Kalmyks were included in almost all of the listed groups of Cossacks.
According to Wikipedia, somewhere in the middle of the 17th century, due to internal strife in the Kalmyk Khanate, Kalmyks began to migrate to the places of residence of the Cossacks and replenish their ranks.
Don Kalmyks-Cossacks
“Kalmyks first appeared on the Don in 1648. The reasons for the migration of a part of the Kalmyks to the Don were internal feuds in the Kalmyk Khanate.
In 1702, with the consent of the government, a large group of Kalmyks moved to the Don, who, as the Derbet taisha Solom-Dorji wrote in 1747, by the order of Peter I was given “the right to choose their nomad camps, both along the Volga and along the Don, according to their own wishes. . (Wikipedia)
Chuguev Cossack army
Promotional video:
During the reign of Peter I, on February 28, 1700, in the Chuguevsky district, a special Chuguevsky Cossack Host was formed, in which, in order to strengthen the main Cossack population, Kalmyks and Tatars who had converted to Orthodoxy were enrolled in the local steppes, as well as former city Cossacks who previously lived in Kursk, Orel, Oboyan, Oskol, Belgorod, Putivl, Kromakh and other nearby fortress cities of the Belgorod line. The Cossacks were allotted land for settlement along the upper reaches of the Seversky Donets and its tributaries, as well as farmsteads, mowing and other provisions. (wikipedia)
Stavropol Kalmyk regiment
Even during the reign of Peter the Great, the Kalmyks who roamed the Volga steppes began to convert to Orthodoxy, and to facilitate this transition, which was highly desirable for the Russian government, many liturgical books were translated into the Kalmyk language and special missionaries were assigned to the Kalmyk camps. One of the Kalmyk princes, Peter Taishin, who, being baptized himself with his family, managed to unite the scattered wagons and subdue them with the help of the Russian government to his power. To further strengthen this power, as well as Orthodoxy, the Stavropol fortress was built in 1739, on the Volga, not far from the city of Samara. This fortress, ruled by the Russian commandant, was subordinated to the Orenburg governor, and the Kalmyks, located in its vicinity, made up the Cossack Stavropol Army,and they were granted with a special charter the privileges of the Cossacks: duty-free trade and income from the sale of wine, and in addition, some other benefits.
On January 23, 1745, the government decided to use the new Army militarily, for which it was divided into 8 companies. For the order of management in the internal structure, some reforms were made. The posts of a military chieftain, a military judge and a military clerk were established, a military chancellery was appointed and special staffs were approved. The trial was conducted according to the ancient folk customs of the Kalmyks, and the presence of the military chancellery made decisions on various court cases. The Stavropol Kalmyk Army put 300 Cossacks on active service annually.
In 1756, a special Stavropol Kalmyk army was created from the Kalmyks, reckoned with the Orenburg corps.
In 1760, to strengthen the Stavropol Army, the government numbered 1,765 Kalmyks (Dzungars) liberated from Kyrgyz captivity, who also converted to Christianity and formed three new companies.
In 1802, the Stavropol Kalmyk Army numbered a total of 2,830 Cossacks and 81 elders. In total, there were 11 companies in the Army, which put more than 800 Cossacks into service. (Wikipedia)
Cossack of the Stavropol Kalmyk army. 1829 - 1838.
Orenburg Cossacks with camels.
Yaik Cossacks on the march.
Kalmyk in military service.
Who are these Kalmyks and why did the Cossacks so willingly accept them into their armies?
According to Wikipedia: “Kalmyks are Mongolian people of the Oirat group (Western Mongols). They speak mainly Russian, and less often the Kalmyk languages. They are the descendants of the Oirat tribes who migrated in the late 16th - early 17th centuries from Central Asia to the Lower Volga and the Northern Caspian.
The self-name of the Kalmyks, khalmg (khalmgud), most likely comes from the Türkic adjective Kalmak - “separated”, “straggler” (there is no such word in the Mongolian languages related to Kalmyks)”
Nikolaas Witsen in his book "Northern and Eastern Tartaria" calls Kalmyks Kalmaks or Kalmukks, the difference in sound, apparently, is associated with translation from different languages. He gives his version of the origin of the word "Kalmak":
"The word" Kalmak "comes from the words" long hair ", that is," braids "that these people wear."
And one more: "They wear hats, which the Russians call caps, open at the front and back, and with wide brims on both sides, which is why other tartars call them Kalmaks."
Is it such a hat?
According to Witsen's description, Kalmakia occupied a decent area:
“The wide-spreading region of Kalmakia, which the surrounding peoples reckon among the countries of Eastern Tartary, has eastern neighbors of Mugals, and from the north it borders on the small country of Altin, in the west - with the Yaik River (Ural) and Nagai tartars, and in the south - with Bukhara … It extends from approximately 50 to 55 north latitude and is divided into White Kalmakia and Black."
And he explains how black Kalmaks differ from whites:
“Kalmaks, who are called blacks, are so named because of their rough lifestyle. For the same reason, they are also called black mohals. There is no other difference between them and those who are called white Kalmaks, except that blacks live more uselessly, which is why some do not make a difference in the names of both. They are also called black because it is dangerous to travel around their country, just as the Black Sea is called (Because "black", or "kara", in Tartar means not only "black color", but also everything "ugly", "Repulsive") (And there were times when this sea was called Hospitable - note mine)
Fragment of a map by Nikolaas Witsen, 1705.
Fragment of a map from Remezov's Drawing Book, sheet 44, 1701.
On the map of Remezov, the Cossack Horde is shown as the southern neighbors of the Kalmaks, and not Bukharia. Witsen often mentions Kalmaks and Mugals together, without making a big distinction between them:
“From the story of these people it seemed that Mugals and Kalmaks often roam together, and also that the name“Kalmak”is common to many Mugals and Kalmaks, and that Mugals are also called“Mugalsky Kalmaks”.
"In 1675, four Mugalsky princes arrived in Moscow, who said that they were Mugalsky Kalmaks."
“Mugals are on the road almost all the time; in winter they set up huts or houses, but in summer they live in tents. Both mugal and Kalmaks have almost the same lifestyle."
“Although all these clans of Mugals are subordinate to different khans, they still belong to the same people. When one of them is in need for external reasons, they all help each other. They are almost all of the same faith, pagan.
Sintsy call in one word "tata" (tartars) moogal of all clans and Kalmaks living behind the Great Wall, in the desert."
(speaking about the sinets and words, there is an interesting passage from Witsen's book: “Those who live outside the Sinskaya wall - Kalmaks, Mugals, Bukhara and others - call the modern Tartar emperor Sina, origin from Niukhe, the honorary title of Bogda (Bogdan?) But where this name comes from, we do not know; obviously, when one of the emperor's ancestors in Tartaria, tayshi, or princes, took possession of the state of Sina, he was given an honorary name in Tartar, Bogda: as it were "divine" or "from God". For "Bog" means God in Tartar, as well as in Russian. Or maybe because this country was blessed by God. ")
“Although there are many taishas or princes among the Kalmaks, still Ochurti, or Ocherai Sain Khan, is the greatest. These princes are from the clan of Genghis Khan, the first emperor of Tartar. Tamerlane was of the same family, who defeated the Turkish Sultan Bayazet (as they say)."
So Kalmaks are relatives of Genghis Khan, Tamerlane, Mugals (Witsen also calls them Mugals), and descendants of the Scythians:
“The fact that the Mugals, or those people who then lived in the country of the Mugals since ancient times, were known under the name of the“Scythians,”remains undeniable. Elsewhere, where Porus still remained to fight (Many laws both in Malabar and in Ceylon are still called by the name of this Porus - "pores"), we find that under the banner of Alexander, the Scythians and dachers were the first to attack the Indians, about which the aforementioned writer says that their wealth consisted in vast groves with beautiful streams in which they grazed their cattle, which can still be seen how the Mugals and Kalmaks, who are direct descendants of the ancient Scythians, do this; Alexander won the friendship of this people more with good nature and good deeds than with victories: he sent prisoners back without ransom, so it turned out that he fought with the wildest people not out of hatred, but in order toto show your courage."
“Already at that time the Scythians lived in deserts and moved from one pasture to another. Their ambassador told Alexander that he loathes fighting with them * Curtius, Book IV: "Walk freely across the Tanais River and you will see how far the Scythians have spread, but you will never subdue them."
And elsewhere: "Our poverty will go faster than our army" - as if by this they wanted to say that the hardships and impassability of their areas will force the Greek soldiers to return; and we find the same situation now in Mugalia and in the land of Kalmaks.
These were the Scythians, whom Curtius calls "abii", and others, located north of the beginning of the Ganges and further east of the Caspian Sea, with whom Alexander dealt. That this is precisely the place where the mugals live now, it will become clear to those who deign to look at our maps. So it turns out that the ancestors of the modern Mugals, who wrote the above letter, were so in alliance with Alexander that he appointed their prince and helped to divide their land into regions; his descendants still boast of this Macedonian prince and enrich their honorary titles with his memory"
“Mugals, like Kalmaks, are what some believe are called Gog and Magog in the Bible. The Mugals call themselves Mongols and Munguls. They are from those peoples whom the Greeks called "Skuf", and their country was called "the country of Skuf", about which they write that it is a large country divided by rivers. For it stretches from the beginning of the Danube and Dnieper, or Borystenes, and then covers the entire Crimean land, up to the Don, or Tanais, and to the Volga, or Ra, and the Yaik river. Then it covers wild fields up to the Sinsky state and the Amur River. It stretches from the Amur to the state of Siberia.
This nation is more numerous than any other in the whole world. Many kingdoms have origin from them, namely: Bulgaria, Ligri, Türks (de Turken) and others.
Not only many princes feared the Scythians (Skufe), but even Alexander the Great. Now their languages and names are different, but their manners, customs and weapons are the same."
It turns out that the Scythians were renamed Kalmaks and Mugals, or rather, Tartar, but they remained to live in the same territories in which they lived before. As it turns out from the descriptions of the same Witsen, Siberia and China were also part of their territory:
“These peoples - Nuki, or Dshurtsy - are ancient enemies of the Sinets. Already 1,800 years ago, the Sinets called them kin. This also means "gold", as they say that there is a lot of gold in the mountains of their country. About 400 years ago, they came from the Great Wall to Sina and occupied six large areas. They would have occupied the whole of Sina, but the Kalmak tartars who lived around Samarkand and Bukhara, the descendants of Genghis Khan - the Mugals and other peoples - hearing that the Nuki had occupied Sina, out of envy entered in a large mass through the western and southern regions into Sina and drove the Nuki out of there, taking they have half of the land. Along with the Kalmaks and other tartars, a certain Marco Polo, originally from Venice, came to Sina. Then the Kalmaks occupied the entire Sina and founded a new imperial dynasty called Iven. (Ivan?) The emperors of this dynasty ruled in Sina for about 100 years. Then the Sinians drove them out again and founded the Taiming dynasty, which dominated the country about 40 years ago, because the Nuki Dshurians, or Juchers, again came to Sinu, occupied it and founded a new dynasty of the imperial Tartar clan Taising."
“These Kalmak peoples ruled for 90 years in Sina, when in 1368, after the birth of the Savior, the Katays, or Sinets, again began to rebel and fight with the Kalmak Tartars until they finally restored their state (throne). At that time, among the Kalmak warriors, there was a foreigner Marco Polo, a native of Venice."
So it turns out who Marco Polo was visiting with the Kalmaks! Witsen describes the Kalmaks as wild nomads:
“Animals themselves use their hooves to dig grass from under the snow, because Kalmaks do not harvest hay. Therefore, there is a large mortality of livestock, especially often in the spring, when the snow thaws and then freezes again, and the animals cannot break through the ice crust. Sheep, as the weakest, die first, then oxen and cows, and, if the frost persists, horses and camels. And since the Kalmaks live by cattle breeding, if cattle die, they must inevitably die of hunger. Therefore, travelers have repeatedly found dead Kalmaks in the fields."
“Kalmaks lead a wild life, fight among themselves and with neighbors, or have fun with hunting. There are no Christians among them, and there are no Jews, but they are in Sina and come there from India to trade. They have no guns, but they have guns, very long: they are lit with wicks. Most of them are made in Bukharia; there is also gunpowder from Sina. They don't have circumcision and they eat pork. They don't know about the Savior and the angels. Their country is adorned with plains and mountains. They receive gold and silver in ingots from Sina and make something out of it, but they have no coins. True, there are tigers on the borders with Bukharia, but not with them. Lions and elephants are in Sina, but they are not. Men wear caftans, which they call Ariam. They throw the right floor over the left one, and women and their princes, who differ little from ordinary people, do the same, they are more engaged in hunting. They get the paper from Sina. Polygamy is accepted by them, as by the Mohammedans."
Those. they have nothing of their own, Bukharians receive one, the other from Sina, and so they live. And at the same time, Witsen also found the following descriptions:
“Kalmuks are strong, warlike men; and what makes them braver in dangerous undertakings than tartare is the strength of their horses and the advantage of their weapons, both in battle and in defense; for they rarely fight without helmets, armor, or a caftan of iron rings and with a shield, which - since it is not heavy and not wide - they wear behind their backs when they are not fighting. They are armed, like other tartars, with bows and arrows, and never walk without pikes, which they wield with great strength and agility."
So, probably?
Or like this:
Here's another description:
“One soldier who was in the garrison of the city of Tomsk (on a tributary of the Ob River) for a long time told me that the Kalmaks (with whom he fought in 1668, June 27), when they fight, often bare their upper body. Much blood was shed in that battle. 200 Kalmaks remained in captivity, the number of those killed was estimated at no less than 4,000. They had bows, spears and swordsmen.
The people come to war well armed. They wear helmets and armor of scales, use pikes and arrows, short swords, not crooked ones, which are called salemas. Other weapons are an arrow, a bow, long knives, sabers and spears with an iron point, one elbow long. In addition, they have a thick rope tied around their belts with a loop at the end: they throw it on the run around the enemy's neck and pull him off the horse, as Herodotus says. It was already in his time that it was customary for some Scythians."
In order to arm the soldiers in this way, firstly, a lot of iron is needed, which means that it is necessary to search, extract and develop iron-bearing mines. Secondly, to smelt iron from ore. This means that melting furnaces and bricks are needed. Thirdly, all these helmets, swords, chain mail, pikes and shields must be forged somewhere and with something. Is all this real for the nomadic people? After all, these are not only structures and tools, but also the necessary knowledge and skills. Or did they not produce all these things themselves, but acquired from other nations?
But it turns out that they still had cities before. But in the 17th century, for some reason, they were destroyed:
“In four days' journey from the city of Tomsk, around which Kalmaks live, we come across the remains of a destroyed city without houses or dwellings. The stones of destroyed houses lie in heaps, sometimes whole heaps of stones. Some of them show strange letters, now unknown.
The pagans living around in huts say that in ancient times it was the main city of the great Kalmak prince, and he (the city) sank into the ground and was destroyed."
The city fell into the ground? It looks like a cataclysm. Another mention of underground buildings:
“Eyewitnesses tell me that not far from Krasnoyar there is a burial ground, a little higher than Astrakani, where two saints lie - a woman and a man. There Christians, Crimean tartars and Kalmaks celebrate divine services. The pagans make sacrifices there. Everyone believes that they belonged [precisely] to his religion. They lie in a hollow, where they descend from above along a rope *. 1678. The corpses are still with muscles, hard and dry, but the woman's head is separated from the body. They say that they have been there for over 800 years. They also say that they saw many hollows and stone vaults in the ground, which sounded strong when they made a sound there, or dropped a stone. These are indeed signs that there were large buildings."
“They (Kalmaks) do not live in cities, but they say that between the mountains, near rivers, there are many remains of ruined and rather large cities surrounded by walls, but broken and overgrown with trees, where there are various animals and large beautiful buildings: some intact, while others are dilapidated. It is believed that zines lived in them and were abandoned or expelled several centuries ago. When asked why they did not settle them, they replied that because of the livestock it was more convenient for them to move from place to place. The Kalmaks have no stone temples, but strange large felt churches, with two doors through which light passes. Instead of a bell, they beat the basins. Their country is quite densely populated, but most of the peoples live under the Dalai Lama."
The city of Karakrim is mentioned several times:
"Karakrim * or Karukurim: this city is now completely destroyed - a large city in Kalmakia."
“Karakrim is a big city in the fields of Kalmakia. Its inhabitants are large artisans and craftsmen. They worship the stars. At one time the khans of Kalmakia conquered Katay. But later he again fell under the rule of the first kings. After Chinggis, the city and the region were dominated by the Kara-Crimean men called Uluh Yuriff. " This is where the report of the mentioned unknown Arab writer ends."
Probably they mean Karakorum. According to Wikipedia: “the capital of the Mongol Empire in the years 1220-1260. At present it is a city, the center of the Kharkhorin somon of the Uverhangai aimag of Mongolia. The name goes back to the Mongolian toponym of the surrounding mountains "Karakorum" (literally "khar khurem", "black stones of the volcano")"
A model of the ancient Karakorum at the Mongolian National History Museum.
This is what modern Karakorum looks like.
The difference is striking. Taken from Wikipedia.
“Tamirlanku is an old ruined fortress, between the Kalmak and Mughal lands; from there they come to the desert lands of Karakitay."
Presumably the cities were destroyed by Tamerman:
“After Genghis Khan, at the height of his victories, took possession of the Mughal state, and some of his descendants became large Tartar and Mughal emperors (some of them inclined towards Christianity, and others, like Sultan Bark, towards Mohammedanism), this state was greatly fragmented and fell under the rule of many princes, until Tamerlane rose and sat on the throne of the Great Tartar Empire. He made the city of Samarkand his capital and ruled over the lands to Egypt, as well as from Constantinople to India and Arabia. He conquered the Daste region and modern Mugalia and Kalmakia, as in ancient times belonged to his ancestors, although then it belonged to other princes (Some writers believe that Tamerlane was of low origin). True, he did not completely subdue these lands, but he destroyed many, raiding them until then,until, finally, strife arose among the princes in his time, and they fought among themselves; why during Tamerlane's time this country was so destroyed that there were no cities left (of which there were so few inside the country); therefore, hundreds of thousands of people fled to Russia, and to the countries between the Sinsk and Black Seas, and to other countries; while Tamerlane drove them out of the country in incredible numbers and settled near Samarkand and in his other states, so that the Mugalsky regions became deserted and impassable. " (Interestingly, it turns out that Tamerlane seized his own country and destroyed the cities of his own people. But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently, falsifying history is also not an easy matter?)why during Tamerlane's time this country was so destroyed that there were no cities left (of which there were so few inside the country); therefore, hundreds of thousands of people fled to Russia, and to the countries between the Sinsk and Black Seas, and to other countries; while Tamerlane drove them out of the country in incredible numbers and settled near Samarkand and in his other states, so that the Mugalsky regions became deserted and impassable. " (Interestingly, it turns out that Tamerlane seized his own country and destroyed the cities of his own people. But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently, falsifying history is also not an easy matter?)why during Tamerlane's time this country was so destroyed that there were no cities left (of which there were so few inside the country); therefore, hundreds of thousands of people fled to Russia, and to the countries between the Sinsk and Black Seas, and to other countries; while Tamerlane drove them out of the country in incredible numbers and settled near Samarkand and in his other states, so that the Mugalsky regions became deserted and impassable. " (Interestingly, it turns out that Tamerlane seized his own country and destroyed the cities of his own people. But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently, falsifying history is also not an easy matter?)and to the countries between the Sinsky and Black seas, and to other countries; while Tamerlane drove them out of the country in incredible numbers and settled near Samarkand and in his other states, so that the Mugalsky regions became deserted and impassable. " (Interestingly, it turns out that Tamerlane seized his own country and destroyed the cities of his own people. But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently, falsifying history is also not an easy matter?)and to the countries between the Sinsky and Black seas, and to other countries; while Tamerlane drove them out of the country in incredible numbers and settled near Samarkand and in his other states, so that the Mugalsky regions became deserted and impassable. " (Interestingly, it turns out that Tamerlane seized his own country and destroyed the cities of his own people. But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently, falsifying history is also not an easy matter?)But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently falsifying history is also not easy?)But there are a lot of such inconsistencies, and not only in the descriptions of Witsen, but also in other authors. Apparently falsifying history is also not easy?)
The Kalmaks also have preserved cities, but for some reason they do not use them:
“They say that the children of the Tartar prince Koltashini live in the town of Kol (otherwise called Kontashina), located in a valley between the mountains. Labens, or labises, also live there - these are Kalmak priests. The town is built of clay, there are only two buildings of gray stone. The aforementioned Tartar prince Kol is of the Kalmak clan. He does not live in this town, but roams in the field."
“They say that the Kalmaks near the Bukhara region, namely to the west, where Bushuzhtikhan reigned, have six or seven fortified cities, not to live there, but to defend themselves if necessary. But I still haven’t recognized their names, appearance and exact location. Bukharians and Kalmaks trade among themselves and for the most part live in peace."
“The fact that in Kalmakia near the Mugal borders there are fortresses, or fortified places where one can defend, is evident from the fact that when the Great Ambassador of Their Imperial Majesties F. A. Golovin sent a messenger to Irkutsk, to Bushukti Khan, the Kalmak prince, the messenger was ordered to travel with all precautions and stop at inns, which are fortified so that he would not be caught off guard by Mughal enemies or other foreign peoples."
But there are those in which they live:
“On the 1st of the harvest month [August], he again set off from Tara up the river. On the 6th of the wine month [October] on 40 camels and 50 horses, which were sent to him by the Bukharians and Prince Taisha Shablai, he went to Kabal-kasuna, where the Kalmaks live in brick houses. He was on the road for 3 weeks."
“Kalbasin, or Kabalgakum, or Kabalgakana, is a place near the Irtysh River, near White Waters. The inhabitants there are of the Kalmak type; their houses are built of baked bricks. The place, or town, actually stands on the tributary of the Irtysh, near the lake.
Since Kalmaks wander and do not engage in agriculture, the Bukharians sow bread for them:
“Not far from here, on the left side of the Irtysh River, lives a Kalmak chief - a labu, or priest. His land is plowed by Bukhara, and it gives wheat, barley and peas."
In addition to cities, there were also roads in Kalmakia:
“The second road, along the Sarysu River, through Sauskan, is rocky; on the Kalmak road, away from the Cossack regions, there is a guard. Through the river Zhui - the city of Savran, to the city of Turgustan - 13 days drive. There are many rivers, the land is flat, there are mountains, but not high, they go there by carts."
“It takes 10 days to drive from Khivalinskoye Lake by the Kalmak road to Khiva, then there is another road on the left side, next to Lake Khivalinskoye, five miles long: this is a German mile, and there are many fish there. The Aral and Gorlene peoples live around this lake. From Khiva to the stone mountains of Ernak - six days drive."
The Kalmak nomads had not only cities and roads, but also ships:
“When in 1688 the Kalmuk ambassador was in Irkutsk, he said that the trip from there to the location of his taisha, or prince, Bushukti Khan takes three months for the ambassador, but if they want to cross Lake Baikal, then with a favorable wind this route took two months, but he thought it safer to go through Tunkinskaya."
The Kalmaks had writing and books:
“To the south are the so-called“black Kalmaks,”of the same faith and way of life with the rest. But they are under a different prince, but they have one language and one script.
“Kalmaks - both white and black - differ both in language and writing from other tartars. I've seen some of their books. The letters are well drawn, but have nothing to do with Arabic. Both of these Kalmak peoples are almost always at war with each other over pastures and fields."
“Most Kalmaks are pagans; they pray to one god, who is called Burkhan. They depict him in the form of gold, silver and copper figurines, modeled after their Dalai Lama, whom they render divine honors, and whom the Kalmaks revered more than the Sinets. After death, he allegedly returns to the body of a woman and is born again, of which they are firmly convinced. Their language and writing generally coincides with the Mughal. (it also says that the Kalmaks believed in reincarnation - my note)
“In the Kalmak alphabet, a special way of reading and the shape of letters should be noted. They read from behind and from top to bottom, then from below the next line up again. The letters are easy to write. The vowels are, obviously, separate letters, like ours; they are depicted with signs and dashes, and their pronunciation depends on their shape and on which letter they stand."
“They have books written, but not printed. The books tell about the government of their country, about what is happening in it, about the flow of the moon, sun, constellations. (these are the nomads in the Middle Ages - note mine)
In addition to the already listed crafts and skills, they also developed weaving. Because they did not dress in animal skins, but in woven clothes.
“The Mugalski women are quite beautiful and not as constrained as the Sinners. Their clothes - long caftans - are almost the same as in Kalmakia. They know how to braid their hair beautifully and wrap it around the head, which is usually not covered. The clothes of men and women are black or brown. Men wear small hats."
“The women here are pretty pretty and are dressed like Kalmak, in floor-length clothes. Men also wear long brown caftans."
“The Kalmaks have flat and even caps from above, with a red drooping brush. Mugals wear the same. Women have braids on both sides of the chest, like many of us, they wear wigs. They weave some taffeta or black silk fabric into them. They tie the hair in a brush with a black bow above their head. For men, caftans are buttoned on the side, not the front *. See Newhof for this type of clothing. (So much for the nomads - in wigs, with taffeta and bows! - note mine)
“In February 1689, Darkhan Zaysan, the ambassador of Kalmak Bushuktu Khan, arrived to Mr. Great Ambassador F. A. Golovin, the viceroy and governor in Bryansk, sent by Their Royal Majesties for peace negotiations with the Sinets from the fortress of Irkutsk. He handed the letter to his master in the front room before appearing at a reception with the aforementioned Mr. Ambassador. In addition, he gave a gift of white cloth with red stripes, which was made in his country."
And their own houses, mobile wagons, were also sometimes sewn from fabrics:
“The tents in which they live are called“wagons”. They are often made of linen, three, four or more fathoms in size. They are broken on the spot where they find good grass and water. And when the grass is grazed by the cattle, they fold it up and break it in a new place, where the meadows are better."
So why did Kalmaks become nomads? By all indications, they were not previously. But their cities were destroyed, some of which went underground (was they covered with earth?), The trees disappeared, and somewhere even the grass, turning the fertile land into a desert. There are fewer sources of drinking water. It was impossible to survive living in one place in the city - without water and without food. It was possible to survive only by roaming from place to place in small groups:
“Kalmakia is a generally barren country. The land is sandy and salty. There are many lakes, but the plants remain low. There are few trees, most of them grow on the banks of rivers."
“Kalmaks and Mugals live all over the Irtysh and White Waters region, along Kalbasin, right up to the Sino borders, especially between the mountains. There is little water and food, so if they travel together in large groups, they stock up on food and take it with them."
“The land between Astrakan and the Yaik River is mostly flat, few trees grow there, and these trees are used by the Kalmaks in winter [to] tie up camels, horses and [other] livestock, since they are only fueled by camels, cows and other dung. animals."
“The lands of Saratov to Tambov are worthless wastelands. But near Chernoyar, the Yaik and Don rivers, the land is good. Tulips grow wild there. Under the Queen, you can see many cherry trees in the wild, as well as apple trees, and some berries that look like tin balls. They are delicious, especially after frost."
“Both Kalmaks and Nagays wander with their shacks, settle where they find water and pasture. Their main wealth is animals. When they move to a sedentary lifestyle, then each prince with his subjects arranges himself, as it were, in a city with beautiful streets made up of tents and shacks."
In order to live in built cities, you need drinking water, fuel, food in sufficient quantities within reach. Most of the population probably died? N. Witsen does not write anything about this. But such conclusions can be drawn from indirect descriptions. For the same remnants of destroyed cities, for the presence of crafts, writing, books, sciences (astronomy, for example).
And what would become of our civilization if, for example, all electricity were cut off, vegetation died, rivers and lakes dried up or their waters became unfit for drinking, and all cities and fertile lands were covered with a thick layer of sand and clay? They would try to leave these places for more favorable conditions for life. And if this happened over a large area, and there would be nowhere to go?
If the story about the Cossacks was incomplete without the story about the Kalmaks, then the story about the Kalmaks is not complete without the story about the Kalmak women:
“Unmarried women accompany men in war. It is believed that they differ little from those in skills and strength. They shoot their bows almost as fast and dexterously as men. It is not easy to distinguish them both by their dress and by the manner of driving. Both men and women rarely carry less than five or six horses on military campaigns."
“Probably, the stories about the Amazons come from the brave Kalmak women, since this people still uses women and girls in battles and wars to this day. They are as brave as men. This assumption has all the more reason that the areas where Kalmaks also roam are precisely the countries where, as they said in ancient times, the Amazons lived."
"Amazons, such as they were before, are now not met, however, it is true that in these areas, especially among Kalmaks and Mugals, women sometimes also go to war with men and carry weapons."
All illustrations, maps, diagrams, photographs were taken by me on the Internet for free access. The quotes by Nikolaas Witsen are taken from his book “Northern and Eastern Tartary”, which is freely available on the Internet.
Author: i_mar_a