The legendary city of Troy has been haunted by ancient seekers for centuries. More than 100 years ago, Heinrich Schliemann excavated here. And in 1988, archaeologists returned to mysterious Troy again. By now, several cultural layers have already been discovered there. The oldest is related to the 3rd millennium BC. e.
Schliemann's discovery was a powerful impetus for the development of the "Trojan" theme. What is common between the myth of Troy and the real history of the city he excavated? Was Troy really a great prehistoric power? Can Troy be considered the cradle of European civilization? Was the Trojan War? And if so, when did this happen? …
The questions are endless. In general, Homer not only gave food for the mind to inquisitive descendants, but also "threw a job" for several generations of scientists. In the XX century, Troy gave the world many discoveries, and apparently, it will surprise more than once.
Each discovery gives rise to a stormy controversy in the scientific world. We will tell you about the most intriguing ones.
Perhaps in the Bronze Age, Troy was 10 times larger than it is commonly believed. 1992 - to the south-west of the Hisarlik hill, where Heinrich Schliemann conducted excavations more than a hundred years ago, a moat was discovered that encircled the city of Troy. It ran quite far from the city walls, bordering an area of 200 thousand m2, while Troy itself occupied only 20 thousand m2.
German archaeologist Manfred Korfmann made the assumption that this moat surrounded the Lower City. Back in 1700 BC. e. thousands of people lived here. The Lower City appeared in the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. e. Obviously, the city of Troy was much more powerful than previously thought.
1994 - another artificial moat was discovered. The first moat ran 400 meters from the fortress, and the second - 500 meters away. Both of them turned out to be almost the same: depth - 1.5 meters, width - 3 meters; both were part of a well-designed fortification system. It was impossible to cross such a moat in war chariots. Behind the moat, according to scientists, there was a wooden wall or rows of pointed stakes. Because of this, the fences were firing at enemies. True, the remains of the stockade can no longer be found today, but Homer's Iliad contains a description of such a structure:
A reckless thought - to drive horses across the moat with chariots.
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It is by no means convenient for the transition: along it continuously
Sharp stakes stand, and behind them the stronghold of the Danes.
We should not go down into this trench, nor should we fight in it, Equestrian fighters: the gorge there is terrible, they will cut everyone.
(XII, 62–66; translated by N. Gnedich)
Korfman believes that in the Bronze Age the city of Troy was part of the Anatolian civilization, and not at all the Cretan-Mycenaean. Troy was most likely an outpost of Asia, and not the largest European city.
1995 - A bronze seal with an inscription was discovered in Troy - the first written monument found here. The inscription is in Luwian hieroglyphs. In 1500 BC, the Luwian language was widely spoken in Asia Minor. The Hittites also used it. Did the Trojans speak this language? Of course, this cannot be said from a single find.
But Korfman himself is convinced that the inhabitants of Troy of the Bronze Age were of Luwian origin. The Luwians are one of the Indo-European peoples who, along with the Hittites around 2000 BC. e. moved to Anatolia. Many of the items found at Troy are from this Eastern Anatolian culture rather than Greek civilization.
The fortress walls of the city of Troy resembled Anatolian fortifications, and not at all Mycenaean: the walls widened downward, but at the top, they might have been jagged; along their perimeter there were superstructure towers. The defensive moat also fits well into the general - "eastern" - appearance of Troy: it is in Central Anatolia and Northern Syria, and not in Mycenaean Greece, that one can find similar fortresses with a well-fortified and closely built-up "Lower City". The appearance of the dwellings is typical of Anatolian architecture.
The cult objects found in Troy are also of Hittite-Luwian origin. So, in front of the southern gates of Troy, four steles are still visible today, installed on a powerful stone pedestal - among the Hittites they served as symbols of the god - the patron saint of the city. Finally, in the cemetery near the city walls, traces of cremation can be seen. This method of burial was characteristic of the Hittites, and not at all for the Western peoples of that era. Until the late Minoan period, i.e. before 1400 BC. e., the Greeks buried the bodies of the dead.
Based on the guesses of philologists, Korfman identified Ilion / Troy with the city or locality "Wilusa", which is mentioned more than once in Hittite cuneiform sources. "Vilusa" was located in the northwest of Asia Minor - approximately in the same place where Troy was located. “Now,” notes Korfman, “we have the right to attribute Troy / Ilion and its inhabitants to the Hittite-Luwian world with an even greater probability.”
If so, then the implications of this discovery are very important. Researchers in Troy can use Hittite sources reporting about Vilus. Is there a description of the Trojan War in Luwian? Perhaps these sources were known to Homer too?
And nevertheless, it should be recognized that in the Bronze Age Asia Minor played an outstanding role in world history. There the West and the East were connected, European innovations merged with innovations brought here from Mesopotamia and the Middle East. The local population absorbed new ideas, developed, improved them, exchanged them with residents of neighboring countries. From here - through Troy and other cities on the Aegean coast - innovative ideas came to Greece.
But this position was not only advantageous, but also fatal. Troy was doomed to be between two often hostile forces: the Mycenaean Greeks and the Hittites. Again and again enemies rushed to its walls. Wars broke out over Ilion. Archaeologists find confirmation of this in numerous traces of fires. Finally, around 1180 BC. e. Troy has experienced some kind of catastrophe, after which the "dark ages" came. The city of Troy fell into decay. However, decline and desolation reigned throughout the then world.
The Greeks of the Bronze Age - the Achaeans, who created the Mycenaean civilization - maintained close relations with Troy since the middle of the 2nd millennium BC. e. This is evidenced by the analysis of ceramics - the most important product of antiquity.
Greek pottery of the Mycenaean era - that is, "Mycenaean" or "Achaean" pottery - appeared on the western coast of Asia Minor around 1500 BC. e. Soon, local artisans began to forge "overseas tricks" - Greek utensils.
The latest finds from archaeologists indicate that the Mycenaean influence is most noticeable in Miletus, Ephesus, Klazomenes - and also in Troy. No other could have been expected. During this time, the city of Troy became an important trade center in the Eastern Mediterranean.
So, from the middle of the II millennium BC. e. the Mycenaean Greeks maintained a close relationship with Troy. True, it is only possible to imagine in general terms how these relations developed before the famous "Homeric War". Archaeologists have not yet found the city archives of Mycenae. We know much better the official documents of the Hittites. So it turns out that the history of Mycenaean Greece - Akhiyava, as it is called in the Hittite messages - we have to study only from the artifacts found in Mycenae, as well as from the letters that were sent from the offices of Hattusa, the Hittite capital, to Mycenae.
The reason lies in the different levels of development of the written culture. If the Hittites have long used convenient cuneiform, the Mycenaean Greeks mastered writing - Linear B, at the earliest, only in the 15th century BC. e. They adopted it from the Cretans after the conquest of Knossos and adapted it to their language. But their letter was considered "too vulgar" for correspondence with the kings of neighboring countries. Therefore, all their diplomatic correspondence was probably carried out using the cuneiform script generally accepted at that time.
In one of the letters to the king of Ahiyava, the Hittite king Hattusili II complains that he could not resolutely rebuff the intrigues of a certain Piyamarad. We are talking about the grandson of King Arzava, a small state on the western coast of Asia Minor with its capital in Apas (Ephesus). His country was constantly at odds with the Hittites, and finally the king fled to Ahiyawa, fleeing the Hittite threat. His grandson, as is clear from the letter, plotted the Hittites along the entire coast of Asia Minor - from Vilusa (Vilios / Ilion / Troy) and Lazba (Lesbos) to Millavanda (Miletus).
The warriors of Piyamarada attacked Vilusa and Lazba, took their inhabitants into slavery and brought them to Millavanda - this city was a kind of outpost of the Mycenaean Greeks in Asia Minor. Hattusili would like to deal with his enemy, but could not grab him, because every time he sailed away on a ship to Ahiyava. The letter shows that the ruler of the Mycenaean Greeks is well aware of the raids of Piyamarada in Asia Minor.
Nevertheless, in this letter, full of complaints and lamentations, the Hittite king Hattusili invariably calls King Ahiyawa “his brother,” even if this appeal sounds formal every time. This title puts the ruler of Ahiyava - "Friend of my enemy" - on a par with the Egyptian pharaoh and the king of the Hittites himself. According to this letter, the Hittites and Mycenaeans have long been in correspondence. There were tense moments in their relationship, there were also happier times. But this relationship has always been maintained.
Unfortunately, the letters of the Mycenaean rulers themselves, addressed to the "Hittite brother", have not been found to this day in the archives of Hattusa. Therefore, we can only reconstruct the relations between the two countries based on indirect facts.
Of all the possible facts, let us dwell on one - geographical names. In Mycenae and other cities of Greece, a number of clay tablets with inscriptions made in Linear B were discovered, where immigrants from Asia Minor are mentioned in one way or another. Information about them is given by the German historian Joachim Latach in the book "Troy and Homer" published in 2001. These names are:
• Tros and Troia = Trojan and Trojan. These words were encountered three times: once at Knossos, in Crete; twice - in Pylos, in the Peloponnese. In addition, the inhabitants of Troy are mentioned in a large archive of clay tablets discovered in 1994–1995. during excavations in Thebes.
• Imrios = "inhabitant of the (island) Imbros"; this word is encountered once in Knossos.
• Lamniai = "women (islands) of Lemnos"; they were mentioned several times in Pylos.
• Aswiai = "Asian"; this word is found many times in Knossos, Pylos and Mycenae. They are probably referring to women from the region called Assuwa by the Hittites and related to Assu in Troas (the city of As was located south of Troy opposite the island of Lesvos).
• (Possibly) Kswiai = "women from (island) Chios"; found many times in Pylos.
• Milatiai = "women of Miletus" and Knidiai = "women of Knidos"; they are mentioned many times in Pylos and Knossos.
What about the context of these words? Each time we are talking about foreigners who got to Akhiyava. Where women are mentioned, these are female workers who were brought from Asia Minor. All the names indicate that the life of the Mycenaean Greeks, long before the "Trojan War", was closely connected with Asia Minor, the islands located off its coast, and Troy. Perhaps the Greeks often raided the coast of Asia Minor and neighboring islands and took out their booty - prisoners.
An indirect proof of this can be considered the complaint of one of the injured kings to the mighty ruler of the Hittites Muwatalli II, dating back to about 1300 BC. e. He writes that Piyamarada attacked Lazba and took the artisans from there to Millawanda.
However, another thing is also clear. The Hittites also carried out robber campaigns. This was a common practice at the time. The Mycenaean Greeks were no exception. However, one moment attracts attention. According to Hittite documents, these predatory campaigns were limited only to the territory of Asia Minor. So far, no mention has been found of women taken into slavery from Ahiyabah - for example, from Pylos, Mycenae, or the "seven-fold Thebes." One-sided expansion is observed: from west to east, from Akhiyava to Asia Minor, but not vice versa.
In the XIII century BC. e. this expansion became commonplace, reminiscent of the Norman onslaught on France, Britain and Ireland in the 9th century CE. e. This can be seen, for example, from the treaty between the Hittite king Tudhaliya IV and his "vassal" Sausgamuva from Amurru, concluded in 1220 BC. e.
In this treaty, the Hittite king not only demands a trade blockade of Ahiyawa, but also decisively excludes its ruler from the traditional “kings formula”, which referred to “the kings of Hatti, Egypt, Babylon, Assyria and Ahiyawa”. This gesture undoubtedly means not only cooling off and dissatisfaction with the policy of the Greeks, but also the very real enmity with them. She started the war.
The famous Hittologist Trevor Bruce, in his book Kingdom of the Hittites, published in 1998, analyzes the historical basis of the Iliad - the Trojan War:
• The Mycenaean Greeks were involved in the political and military upheavals that played out in the XIII century BC. e. in Western Anatolia.
• In the XIII century BC. e. the state of Vilus, which was in vassal dependence on the Hittites, became the object of incessant attacks from the Mycenaean Greeks or their allies.
• Vilusa was located in the northwest of Asia Minor - in the same place where Troy was, sung by Homer.
• From a linguistic point of view, the name Wilusa (Vilusa) can be correlated with the Greek toponym ??? (Ilion).
But, Bruce continues, the Trojan War itself probably never happened. There were only a number of predatory raids, predatory campaigns or military expeditions. In the memory of descendants, these events merged into one long war, which lasted - why not? - 10 years in a row. Maybe instead of one big war there were a dozen campaigns, one of which was crowned with the capture and destruction of Vilusa-Ilion. Perhaps some of these campaigns were led by tribal leaders named Odysseus, Achilles, Ajax, Menelaus, Agamemnon. Bruce himself believes that the Homeric epic describes events that took place over a hundred-odd years.
In the memory of the Rhapsodes and Aedi, who carried tales of the glorious past throughout the towns and villages, these events merged into one whole. And the "Iliad", perhaps, began with scattered songs, a kind of "sagas" that glorified the campaigns of individual Greek leaders to the shores of Asia Minor. The poem, obviously, was preceded by a cycle of heroic songs like epics about the Kiev heroes.
It can be added that returning home after a successful hike was also fraught with risk. The Achaeans, wandering all over the Mediterranean Sea, encountered wild tribes that inhabited individual islands and coasts. From these adventures crystallized the historical core of The Odyssey, another great poem by Homer, still mistaken for a fabulous fiction.
Bruce's conclusions draw on numerous facts and premises. However, sometimes they look rather speculative, which the author himself is aware of. It is difficult to overcome this speculation, far-fetchedness to this day, despite the constant research of archaeologists.
On the other hand, it is no less likely that behind the flowery canvas of the Iliad is not a multitude of “pin pricks”, but one great campaign. German archaeologist Wolf-Dietrich Niemeyer, a participant in the excavations of Miletus, gave his arguments in defense of Homer.
Archaeological finds prove that in the second half of the XIII century BC. e. in Miletus, a change of power took place: supporters of the Achaeans were ousted by proteges of the Hittites. Niemeyer wrote: “Millavanda, or Miletus, was Akhiyawa's outpost on the southwestern coast of Asia Minor. It was from here that the Achaeans intervened in political events in Asia Minor, supported the enemies and rebellious vassals of the Hittite state, although they rarely undertook military campaigns.
Unfortunately, we do not know how in the second half of the XIII century BC. e. the Achaeans were expelled from Asia Minor and how Millavanda came under Hittite rule. Perhaps Tudhaliya IV decided to eradicate this constant hotbed of danger, which was located almost on the border with the Hittite state.
A relatively recent discovery seems to confirm this change of power in Miletus. In June 2000, archaeologist Annelize Peshlov found a Hittite inscription in the Latmos mountains, in the Miletus region, on a pass that led from the depths of Anatolia to this city. At that time, such rock inscriptions - certainly with the image of the Hittite king - served as a signal to all neighboring countries: "The Hittites rule here." The discovered inscription has yet to be accurately dated. But it is already clear that the Hittites claimed power over Miletus.
So, the second version of the historical scenario of the Iliad is developing in a more familiar way. In the second half of the II millennium BC. e. Akhiyava stepped up the onslaught on the eastern Mediterranean. In the 15th century BC. e. Mycenaean Greeks attack Crete. The Minoans are losing their leading position in the Aegean region and are losing their status as a great maritime power. Allies of the Cretans in Asia Minor also fell under the influence of the Greeks. Since that time, the Achaeans have securely settled in Miletus. From here they try to expand their area of influence.
The Greeks strike at the outskirts of the Hittite state, because in those days, depending on the Hittites, not only most of Asia Minor, but also the islands located off its coast, resided. But this onslaught ended with a retaliatory blow from the Hittites. Akhiyava lost her outpost in Asia Minor - Miletus. For several centuries the Achaeans have been interested in the "granary of Asia Minor".
Miletus himself - from a strategic point of view - was quite vulnerable. Therefore, the Greeks tried to conquer a bridgehead in another part of the peninsula, namely in Troy. This rich, flourishing city has long attracted the attention of the Greeks. They went camping …
There are other scenarios as well. According to Korfman, there was an earthquake. This natural disaster decided the fate of the city of Troy. So, the most important role in the ancient legend is played by the "Trojan horse". The Greeks dedicated it to Poseidon. In Greek mythology, Poseidon was considered the "earth shaker". It is this god who shakes the earth, plunging the peoples into terror. But didn't Homer depict, under the guise of a mysterious horse, which ultimately destroyed Troy, a terrible natural disaster - an earthquake that crushed the walls of the fortress?
Birgit Brandau, author of the book Troy: City and Myth, believes that “all the troubles began with the fact that a small enemy army attacked the city or an earthquake struck. The royal palace was destroyed, and then the townspeople, who had a hard life, took this opportunity to revolt. Such social unrest and coups were by no means uncommon at the time, as evidenced by numerous sources."
The very position of Troy was fatal. She was between a rock and a hard place.
“But your last day is approaching! We will not be guilty, sovereign, but God is omnipotent and autocratic fate (Iliad, XIX) - the sentence pronounced to Achilles was fulfilled for Troy.
After the fall of the city of Troy and the collapse of the Hittite state (about 1175 BC), the onslaught of the Greeks intensified. Around 1100 BC e. Greek colonization begins. From now on, for several centuries, it flows in the same direction. “Forward to the promised land! To Asia Minor! So, it is possible to formulate the final conclusion.
The results of recent archaeological expeditions do not yet allow us to conclusively reconstruct the scenario of the Trojan War. But the results of the same expeditions do not deny that behind the Trojan epic lies the history of Greek expansion against a major power located on the western coast of Asia Minor and preventing the Greeks from gaining power over this region.
On the contrary, the latest archaeological research only convinces that the war for Troy - the most important strategic point of those times - was. More and more new findings strengthen scientists in this opinion. It is necessary to understand how it proceeded.
Ancient Troy is now in the center of attention of archaeologists, Hittologists, linguists, Anatolists, Hellenists and many others. The true history of the Trojan War may be written in the coming years. In any case, the solution to the mystery is closer than ever. No doubts remain. Homer must be read seriously - as a historical document.
N. Nepomniachtchi