Modern ideas about ancient medicine are based primarily on the fossil remains of prehistoric people and their tools, as well as on the practices of primitive peoples that have survived to this day. The fossil remains show traces of bone deformation, fractures, osteitis, osteomyelitis, arthritis, rickets, tuberculosis. There is no reliable information about other diseases, but it is quite possible that most modern diseases existed in ancient times.
In primitive medicine, the disease was based on assumptions about the supernatural influence of sorcerers or evil spirits. Therefore, the treatment was appropriate: magic spells, conspiracies, chants and various rituals. Evil spirits were scared away by masks and noise. Until now, magical medicine is practiced in parts of Australia and central Africa, as well as on the islands of Polynesia.
Magic medicine served as the basis for the emergence of the first human profession - quackery. The people who performed the treatment formed a special social group, shrouded in mystery. It should be noted that with such a great belief in the supernatural, many of the superstitions of the ancients contained an empirical kernel. Thus, in particular, the Incas were well aware of the therapeutic properties of mate tea, the stimulating effect of cocoa, as well as the action of guarana and herbal drugs.
And the North American Indians, despite the use of spells and witchcraft for treatment, at the same time were armed with rather effective healing techniques. So, for example, they used diuretics, cleansing agents, diaphoretic drugs, liquid diets and bloodletting for fever. For indigestion - plants with laxative, emetic properties were used, as well as an enema. The Indians used a total of 144 medicinal substances, most of which are used in modern pharmacology. The Indians were especially skillful in surgery: they applied splints for fractures, repaired dislocations, sutured, kept wounds clean, used poultices and cauterization.
The Aztecs also used splints and surgical instruments made of stone. In general, it should be noted that primitive people, who used sharpened stones as tools, showed amazing surgical skill. There is evidence that amputations were carried out in ancient times. Operations such as circumcision, castration and stapling, as well as… craniotomy, were quite normal and common.
Skulls with traces of trepanation were found in Australia, Japan, the Malay Peninsula, and China. Until now, trepanation is used by some primitive peoples of Algeria, the Caucasus, as well as those who live on the islands of the Pacific Ocean. Trepanation was used to treat headaches, epilepsy, and insanity.
The homeland of the world's oldest civilizations is Mesopotamia. Despite the fact that some scholars argue that there were no doctors among the Babylonians, this contradicts archaeological data indicating that the Sumerian-Akkadian civilization had a fairly high level of development of medicine. It is likely that Sumerian medicine preceded Egyptian medicine, because the seal of the Sumerian doctor, found during excavations, dates back to the millennium BC.
Medicine remained magical, doctors were called asu (the one who owns the water). Sumerian medicine has accumulated a lot of empirical professional knowledge. The doctors of this civilization used more than 300 medicines: wood, plant shoots, roots, herbs, seeds, minerals, vegetable juices. Some of them had a special purpose.
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The healing effect of many drugs is beyond doubt. So, for example, massage was advised for stomach pains, enemas - for inflammation. For some diseases, diet, rest and sleep, as well as cold and hot compresses, poultices were recommended.
Astrology played an important role, which was closely associated with the prognosis of diseases. So, in most cases, the symptoms of the disease were listed on the tablets before the indication of the medicine.
From the evidence that has survived to our time, it is obvious that the civilizations of Mesopotamia suffered from diseases of the eyes, gastrointestinal tract, heart, gallbladder, as well as mental disorders and bone diseases. Doctors constituted a special social stratum, and their activities were regulated by law. So, in the code of Hammurabi, severe punishments for improper treatment are defined and rewards are listed if the patient was cured.
As for Egyptian medicine, its beginnings are cut with secrets. The god of wisdom Thoth was considered the author of 6 books on medicine. Unfortunately, none of them survived. The first doctor in Egypt was Sekhetyenanah, who cured the "king's nostrils." More famous was Imhotep, the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser, a famous architect, a great physician. Demigod and patron of medicine.
In Egypt, doctors were also priests. It was a special caste, and medical schools existed independently of the temples. Egyptian medicine is mainly known from the Ebers and Smith papyri that have come down to us. In addition to medical topics, they contain more than 900 prescriptions and prescriptions. They also contain descriptions of the treatment of bruises and wounds, texts on pediatrics and gynecology.
As long as the doctor adhered to the rules recorded in the Hermetic Books, no charge could touch him, even if the patient was dying. At the slightest deviation from these rules, the doctor was punished with death.
Despite the fairly widespread practice of opening and embalming the dead, the Egyptians had little knowledge of physiology and anatomy. Such a contradiction is explained by the presence of many taboos regarding the dead, as well as the fact that special specialists, and not doctors, were engaged in embalming. At the same time, the concept of disease was also at a low level and was based, as a rule, on the idea of the infiltration of evil spirits. An essential part of healing was made up of magic spells, conspiracies and chants. In addition to demons, the ingestion of harmful substances into the body and the weather were also attributed to the causes of diseases.
At the same time, the diagnosis was carried out at a very high level, the pulse was probed from several places (that is, the Egyptians had an idea of blood circulation). They considered the heart to be a vital organ, and respiration as the most important function. The provision of assistance depended on the severity of the disease. So, in particular, head injuries and fractures were considered fatal and were not treated.
For each disease, its own medicines and their exact dosage were prescribed. Some of these remedies are still used today (saffron, opium, olive and castor oil). Surgery was rarely performed because it was necessary to preserve the body for the afterlife. Therefore, the dislocations were adjusted, splints were applied for fractures, but nothing was amputated.
Keeping clean and dieting was part of the religion. Nevertheless, in ancient Egypt, eye diseases, worms, rheumatoid arthritis, and tuberculosis of the spine were quite common. At the same time, there is no evidence of the spread of rickets, caries or syphilis.
Egypt was recognized as the birthplace of the first doctors - narrow specialists. There were a lot of doctors in the state, each treated only his own disease: head, eyes, intestines, teeth.
In Hebrew medicine, in comparison with the medical practice of Babylon and Egypt, new methods of treatment and new concepts appeared, in particular, a complete rejection of the magical approach. Both health and illness are sent by God. The roles of priest and doctor were mixed, but this did not prevent the development of medical professionalism. In the Bible, medicine is rarely mentioned, mainly they relate to the application of ointments and bandages to wounds or splints for fractures.
At the same time, hygiene requirements and disease prevention are reaching very high levels. Religious rituals included washing hands before eating, daily ablution. Laws were developed in the case of skin diseases: wash the clothes of the patient or burn the patient to isolate. And the mention of the plague, rats and the description of buboes may indicate that the ancient Jews had already noted some connection between plague and rats.
In Ancient Persia, there was no knowledge of anatomy, and the attitude towards diseases was based on magic and religion. So-called medicine was exclusively practiced by the priests of the god Mazda, and the treatment consisted of prayers, cleansing ceremonies and rituals. Penalties were established for medical errors, and rewards for successful treatment.
There is no exact data about medicine in ancient India, since it is mentioned only in legends. It is known that special spells were used against the demons of diseases. One of the famous doctors of ancient India was Sushruta, who left descriptions of more than a hundred surgical instruments, as well as a list of 760 medicinal plants. He also wrote about tuberculosis, plague, malaria, and smallpox. It is believed that he was the one who discovered the connection between malaria and mosquitoes and between plague and rats.
The medical thought of India of that period was characterized by the desire for a detailed classification. So, for example, in surgery, the direction, type and depth of the incision are strictly prescribed for each organ. The causes of illness included accidents, climate, karma, and overeating.
Each disease was diagnosed very carefully, using palpation, examination, and listening. Dangerous symptoms were numbered. The treatment was carried out with the use of bloodletting, medicinal plants, leeches, cups, as well as laxatives and emetics and enemas. Particular attention was paid to adherence to the regimen and diet.
Knowledge of anatomy was very weak. For example, it was generally accepted that blood vessels and nerves originate from the navel. At the same time, surgery was very well developed, operations were performed to remove hernias, tonsils, tumors, amputations, stone cuttings, and cesarean sections. Nose plastic surgeries were performed quite often (nose removal was a punishment for adultery or revenge).
Hygiene also played a big role. In the laws of Manu, a diet, washing was prescribed. In surgery, various instruments and sutures were used, as well as ligation of blood vessels.
Chinese medicine is also shrouded in legends. Its founder is considered to be the emperor Shen-nong, who described more than 100 medicinal herbs, and also invented the technique of acupuncture.
Initially, medicine in China was magical, but in the course of development it has accumulated a lot of empirical knowledge about herbal medicines. The basis of medical theory was the doctrine of the 5 elements and forces of yin and yang (feminine and masculine).
Chinese doctors did not practice autopsies, but at the same time they knew about blood circulation.
Pulse played the main role in diagnostics; it was measured in 11 places using three different pressures. There were 200 known pulse types, 26 of which were considered fatal.
The therapy was based on the counteraction of yin and yang, the doctrine of signs was very popular (yellow flowers were used to treat jaundice, beans were used to treat kidneys). At the same time, out of more than 2 thousand recipes, some were very valuable and are still used today. So, for skin diseases arsenic was used, for anemia - iron salts, for the treatment of syphilis - mercury …
This is just a brief overview of the development of medical thought and practice in the ancient world. It is necessary to mention Ancient Greece and Rome, but in a few words you cannot say about the development of medicine in these states.
But in all this, the important thing is that in all these civilizations, in the complete absence of the necessary equipment and knowledge, people wanted to know more. It is very sad that in the modern world this desire is gradually atrophying …