The Goths and the Silver Bible
Among the preserved to this day historical monuments of the distant past, there are real treasures. These include the amazing, admirable and awe-inspiring manuscript - "The Silver Bible", the Silver Code or Codex Argenteus (in short SB, SK or CA), whose silver and gold letters on purple parchment of very high quality are a symbol and carrier of the achievements of the ancient warlike and a courageous people is ready. Its austere beauty makes a deep impression, and its mysterious history, the beginning of which modern science refers to the distant 5th century, makes everyone, from amateur amateur to specialist and from an apologist of the old Germanic culture to its critic, speak and write about her with respect …
The prevailing point of view in science connects the Silver Code with the translation of the Bible made in the 5th century by the Gothic preacher and educator Ulfilah, and claims that the language of this text is Ancient Gothic, which was spoken by the Goths, and the code itself - parchment and beautiful letters - was made in 6th century at the court of the Gothic king Theodoric.
However, there were and are scientists who reject certain aspects of this theory. Opinions have been expressed more than once that there are no sufficiently convincing reasons to identify the language of the Silver Code with the language of the ancient Goths, just as there are no reasons to identify its text with Ulfila's translation.
The history of the Goths at the time of Ulfila is connected with the territories of the Balkan Peninsula and touches upon the history of the Bulgarians, and a number of medieval sources testify to the close relations of the Goths with the Bulgarians; therefore, a critical attitude to the widespread theory of the Goths was reflected in the works of Bulgarian scientists, among which the names of G. Tsenov, G. Sotirov, A. Chilingirov should be mentioned. Recently Chilingirov compiled a collection of "Goti and Geti" (CHIL), containing both his own research and excerpts from publications by G. Tsenov, F. Shishich, S. Lesnoy, G. Sotirov, B. Peichev, which presents a number of information and considerations, contradicting the prevailing ideas about the origin and history of the Goths. The line of departure from tradition in modern studies in the West is marked by the work of G. Davis DAV.
Recently, criticism of a different nature has appeared, denying the old origin of the Silver Code. U. Topper, J. Kesler, I. Shumakh came up with reasoned opinions that the UK is a fake, created in the XVII century. A particularly important argument in favor of this statement is the fact, pointed out by J. Kesler, that the “ink” that could be used to write “silver letters” in CA could have come into being only as a result of the discoveries of Glauber, who lived in the XVII century.
But how to reconcile this criticism with the fact that, as the prevailing opinion about the Code asserts, it was discovered in the middle of the sixteenth century, long before the birth of Glauber?
The search for an answer to this question, ending with a corresponding hypothesis, is described below.
Promotional video:
It is natural to begin our analysis by looking at information about when and how the Silver Bible was discovered and what happened to it before it arrived at its current location at the University Library in Uppsala.
Uppsala version
The University of Uppsala (Sweden), whose library houses the Codex Argenteus, a symbol sacred to the Swedes and Germanic peoples, is the main focus of Codex research. Therefore, the views of local researchers on the history of the Codex formed there are very important, defining components in the mainstream of the prevailing theories about the Codex. On the website of the library of this university we find the following short text:
“This world famous manuscript was written in silver and gold letters on pink parchment in Ravenna around 520. It contains fragments from the four Gospels of the Gothic Bible by Bishop Ulfilah (Wulfila), who lived in the fourth century. Of the original 336 leaves, only 188 remain. With the exception of one page found in 1970 in the Cathedral of Speyer in Germany, they are all kept in Uppsala.
The manuscript was discovered in the middle of the 16th century in the library of the Benedictine monastery in Verdun in the Ruhr region, near the German city of Essen. Later it became the property of Emperor Rudolf II, and when in July 1648, the last year of the Thirty Years War, the Swedes occupied Prague, the manuscript fell into their hands along with the rest of the treasures of the imperial castle of Hradcany. Then it was transferred to the library of Queen Christina in Stockholm, but after the abdication of the queen in 1654 it fell into the hands of one of her librarians, the Dutch scientist Isaac Vossius. He took the manuscript with him to Holland, where in 1662 the Swedish Duke Magnus Gabriel De la Garde bought it from him. In 1669, the duke donated the manuscript to the Uppsala University library, having previously ordered a silver binding,executed in Stockholm by the artist David Clocker Ehrenstral 1. (Lars Munkhammar MUNK1; detailed in the article by the same author MUNK2)
Let's pay special attention to some important details for us:
1) It is considered established - with an accuracy of about ten years - the time of manuscript production: about 520 BC.
2) CA was the Four Gospel, from which separate fragments have come down to us.
3) It is believed that the text of CA goes back to the text of the Gothic translation of the Bible, made by Ulfilah.
4) The fate of CA has been known since the middle of the sixteenth century, when it was discovered in Verdun, near the city of Essen.
5) Later, CA was the property of Emperor Rudolph II - until 1648, when it fell into the hands of the Swedish invaders of Prague.
6) The next owner of CA was Queen Christina of Sweden.
7) In 1654, the manuscript was transferred to Isaac Vossius, Queen Christina's librarian.
8) In 1662 Vossius sold the manuscript to the Swedish Duke Magnus Gabriel De la Gard.
9) In 1699, the Duke donated the manuscript to the Uppsala University library, where it is still kept.
For the purposes of our research, it would be useful to find out: how is it known that the manuscript was made in Ravenna, and how is it concluded that this happened around 520?
The quoted story gives the impression that starting from the middle of the 16th century, or at least starting from Rudolf II, the fate of the manuscript can be traced quite clearly. But all the same, questions arise: have lists been made from her during all this time? If so, what is their fate? And in particular, could the Codex Argenteus be a copy of a manuscript seen in the middle of the 16th century? in Verdun?
Bruce Metzger's version
Now let's take a look at a more detailed account of SA, reflecting the prevailing view of its history. It belongs to the renowned Bible translator Bruce Metzger.
“A century after the death of Ulfila, the Ostrogothic leader Theodoric conquered Northern Italy and founded a mighty empire, while the Visigoths already owned Spain. Considering that the version of Ulfila, judging by the surviving evidence, was used by the Goths of both countries, it obviously was distributed in a large part of Europe. In the V-VI centuries. in the schools of scribes in northern Italy and elsewhere, undoubtedly many version manuscripts were created, but only eight copies, mostly fragmentary, have survived to us. One of the manuscripts is the Codex Argenteus (Codex Argenteus) of the early 6th century, a luxurious large-format copy written on purple parchment in silver ink, and in some places in gold. Not only that, but the artistic style, and the quality of the miniatures and décor indicate that the manuscript was made for a member of the royal family - perhapsfor King Theodoric himself.
The Ostrogothic state in Italy existed for a relatively short time (488-554) and in the middle of the 6th century. fell in bloody battles with the Eastern Roman Empire. The surviving Goths left Italy, and the Gothic language disappeared, leaving almost no trace. Interest in Gothic manuscripts has completely disappeared. Many of them were disassembled into sheets, the text was washed away, and the expensive parchment was used again to write texts that were in demand at that time. The Silver Code is the only surviving Gothic manuscript (other than a double sheet of Gothic and Latin text found in Egypt) that has passed this sad fate.
The Codex Argenteus (The Silver Code) contains the Four Gospels, written, as mentioned above, on purple parchment in silver, sometimes gold ink. From the original 336 sheets, 19.5 cm long and 25 cm high, only 188 sheets have survived - one sheet was discovered quite recently, in 1970 (see below). The Gospels are arranged in the so-called western order (Matthew, John, Luke, Mark), as in the codex from Brescia and other manuscripts of the Old Latin Bible. The first three lines of each Gospel are written in gold letters, which makes the code especially luxurious. The beginnings of the sections are also written in gold ink, as well as the abbreviations of the names of the evangelists in four tables of parallel passages at the end of each page. Silver ink, now darkened and oxidized, is very difficult to read on dark purple parchment. In the photo reproduction, the text of the Gospels of Matthew and Luke is very different from the text of John and Mark - possibly due to the different composition of the silver ink (the ink with which the Gospels of John and Mark were written contained more silver).
What happened to the "Silver Code" in the first thousand years of its existence remains a mystery. In the middle of the XVI century. Antony Morillon, secretary to Cardinal Granvella, discovered the manuscript in the library of the Verdun Monastery on the Ruhr, Westphalia. He rewrote "The Lord's Prayer" and several other fragments, which were subsequently published together with other rewritten verses by Arnold Mercator, the son of the famous cartographer Gerhard Mercator. Two Belgian scholars, Georg Cassander and Cornelius Wouters, upon learning of the existence of the manuscript, drew the attention of the scientific community, and Emperor Rudolph II, a lover of art and manuscripts, took the codex to his beloved castle of Hradcany in Prague. In 1648, in the last year of the Thirty Years War, the manuscript was sent to Stockholm as a trophy and presented to the young Queen of Sweden, Christina. After her abdication in 1654its learned librarian, the Dane Isaac Vossy, bought the manuscript, which set off again when Vossy returned to his homeland.
Finally, the manuscript was lucky: a specialist saw it. Uncle Vossius Francis Junius (son of the Reformation theologian with the same name) thoroughly studied the ancient Teutonic languages. In the fact that his nephew provided him with this unique document for study, Junius saw the finger of Providence. Based on a transcription by a scholar named Derrer, he prepared the first printed edition of the Ulfilas Gospels (Dordrecht, 1665). However, even before the publication was published, the manuscript changed ownership again. In 1662 it was bought by the Supreme Chancellor of Sweden, Count Magnus Gabriel de la Gardie, one of the most famous Swedish aristocrats, patron of art.
The precious manuscript nearly perished when the ship carrying it back to Sweden, in a violent storm, skirted one of the islands in the Zuider See Bay. But good packaging saved the code from the corrosive salt water; the next trip on the other ship went well.
Fully aware of the historical value of the manuscript, de la Gardie handed it over to the library of the University of Uppsala in 1669, ordering a magnificent hand-made silver setting from the court blacksmith (Illustration 2.). In the library, the manuscript became the subject of thorough study, and in the following years several editions of the code were published. A philologically impeccable edition, with excellent facsimiles, was prepared in the 19th century. A. Uppstrom (Uppstrom; Uppsala, 1854); in 1857 it was supplemented with 10 sheets of the Gospel of Mark (they were stolen from the manuscript between 1821 and 1834, but returned by a thief on his deathbed).
Silver frame of the Gothic Bible.
In 1927, as Uppsala University celebrated its 450th anniversary, a monumental facsimile edition was published. A group of photographers, using state-of-the-art reproduction techniques, have created a set of sheets of the entire manuscript that are even easier to read than the darkened parchment sheets of the original. The authors of the publication, Professor Otto von Friesen and Dr. Anders Grape, then the university librarian, presented the results of their research on the paleographic features of the codex and the history of his adventures over the centuries.
The romantic history of the fate of the manuscript was replenished with another chapter in 1970, when during the restoration of the chapel of St. Afra in Speyer Cathedral, diocesan archivist Dr. Franz Haffner discovered a leaf in a wooden reliquary that turned out to be from the Codex Argenteus. The sheet contains the ending of the Gospel of Mark (16: 12-20) 1184. A notable variation is the absence of the Gothic equivalent of the participle in verse 12. The word farwa (image, form) in the same verse supplemented the Gothic Wortschatz known by that time. (METZ)
From this text, we learn, first of all, how the specialists determined the date and place of the manuscript production: this is done on the basis that CA is “a luxurious large-format copy, written on purple parchment in silver ink, and in some places in gold. Not only that, but the artistic style and the quality of the miniatures and decor testify that the manuscript was made for a member of the royal family - perhaps for King Theodoric himself."
On the whole, this is correct reasoning, although it would be rash to immediately agree that Theodoric is the king for whom the manuscript was made. For example, both Emperor Rudolph II and Queen Christina would be quite suitable for the role of this ruler - if the Codex Argenteus is a list from the Verdun manuscript.
Further it turns out that copies of the Verdun manuscript began to be made from the very moment of its discovery: Antony Morillon, who found it, copied the "Lord's Prayer" and several other fragments. All this, along with other rewritten verses, was published by Arnold Mercator. Later, Francis Junius used the Codex Argenteus; on its basis, he prepared the publication of versions of the Gospels of Ulfila.
In this regard, another question arises: To what extent can the text of the "Silver Code" be associated with the Ulfilov translation of the Bible? It is important because, as is known from a large amount of information, Ulfilah was an Arian, and his translation should reflect the peculiarities of Arianism.
And here an important feature of the CA text comes to light: there are practically no Arian elements in it. Here is what B. Metzger writes about this:
“Theologically, Ulfila tended toward Arianism (or semi-Arianism); the question of how much his theological views could have influenced the translation of the New Testament, and whether there was such an influence at all, has been much debated. Perhaps the only definite trace of the translator's dogmatic tendencies is found in Philip 2: 6, where the pre-existence of Christ is spoken of as galeiko guda ("like God"), although the Greek should be translated ibna guda. " (METZ)
Therefore, if the CA text goes back to Ulfila's translation, then it is almost certainly carefully censored. His "cleansing" of Arianism and editing in accordance with Catholic dogma could hardly have occurred in Ravenna during Theodoric's time. Therefore, this version of the four Gospels almost certainly cannot come from the court of Theodoric. Consequently, CA cannot be so closely associated with Theodoric, and his dating to the first half of the 6th century. hangs in the air, groundless.
But still it remains unclear: were there Arian features in the text of the manuscript found in Verdun? And were there any attempts to eliminate such features, if they really existed?
Metzger's version supplements the list of people who played an important role in the history of the Codex with two new names for our study: Francis Junius, an expert in ancient Teutonic languages and uncle Isaac Vossius, and a scientist named Derrer, who transcribed the text of the Codex for the first printed edition of the version of the Ulfilas Gospels (Dordrecht, 1665).
Thus, one key fact for us is clarified: between 1654 and 1662 a list was made from the Verdun manuscript.
Kesler's version
The Codex Argenteus became a symbol of the Gothic past, not only because it is - as Metzger writes - "the only surviving Gothic manuscript (apart from the double sheet of Gothic and Latin text found in Egypt)" (METZ), but also largely due to its impressive appearance: Magenta parchment on which the text is written and silver ink.
Such a manuscript is really not easy to make. In addition to expensive, good quality parchment, you need to paint it purple, and silver and gold letters seem to be something exotic.
How could the ancient Goths have done all this? What knowledge and what technology did their craftsmen have to do such a thing?
However, the history of chemistry shows that they could hardly have had such a technology.
J. Kesler writes about purple parchment that "the purple color of the parchment with its head betrays its nitric acid treatment" (CES p. 65) and adds:
“Chemical materials science and the history of chemistry make it possible to assert that the only way to implement such silver writing is to apply text with an aqueous solution of silver nitrate, followed by the reduction of silver with an aqueous solution of formaldehyde under certain conditions.
Silver nitrate was first obtained and studied by Johann Glauber in 1648-1660. For the first time he conducted the so-called. the reaction of the "silver mirror" between an aqueous solution of silver nitrate and "formic alcohol", i.e. formalin - an aqueous solution of formaldehyde.
Therefore, it is quite natural that the "Silver Code" was "discovered" precisely in 1665 by the monk F. Junius in the Abbey of Verdun near Cologne, since its production could begin no earlier than 1650 ". (CES p. 65)
In support of these conclusions J. Kesler also refers to the considerations of W. Topper that the Silver Code is a forgery made in the late Middle Ages (CES p. 65; TOP). For more details on Kesler's justification, see p. 63-65 books of the CES; in fact, we find the same opinion in the work of I. Shumakh SHUM, where the author adds that "… all existing medieval manuscripts on purple parchment should also be dated after 1650" (SHUM), and that this applies, in particular, to the mentioned A. I. Sobolevsky "Purple parchment with gold or silver writing, known in Greek manuscripts only in the 6th-8th centuries" (SOB). Excerpts from the work of I. Schumakh, shedding light on the details of the history of chemical and technological discoveries that led to the emergence of acid ink. The reaction of the "silver mirror" and the preparation of a purple dye are described by Alexei Safonov.
However, in the above quote with Kesler's reasoning, there is an inaccurate statement that the "Silver Code" was "discovered" in 1665 by the monk F. Junius in Verdun Abbey.
In fact, the data indicate that in the middle of the 16th century a certain manuscript was noticed in the Abbey of Verdun, which we will later call the "Verdun manuscript" and abbreviate as BP. Later it ended up in the hands of Emperor Rudolph II. Then, after changing several owners and “traveling” through several cities in Europe, the Verdun manuscript became the “Codex Argenteus”, which was donated to Uppsala University. At the same time, in modern science it is implied that the Verdun manuscript is the "Codex Argenteus"; and, what is the same, the Codex Argenteus is nothing more than the Verdun manuscript, found in the Abbey of Verdun in the middle of the sixteenth century.
Topper and Kesler's criticisms and considerations end with the conclusion that the Codex Argenteus is a forgery.
However, this conclusion ignores the existence of BP and denies its possible connection with the SA.
In the present study, we accept both the existence of VR and its possible connection with SA. But at the same time, one should take into account the arguments of Kesler. And it follows from them that the manuscript found in the Abbey of Verdun in the middle of the 16th century could hardly be the Codex Argenteus. As a result, a hypothesis begins to take shape that CA was created after the middle of the XVII century; that it is a copy (possibly with some modifications) from the Verdun manuscript; that it was made after the middle of the XVII century. and that he was later credited with the role of the Verdun manuscript. When exactly and how could this have happened?
The first thought that comes to mind is that the substitution occurred while the manuscript was in Vossius's hands.
Kulundzic's version
In his monograph on the history of writing, Zvonimir Kulundzic writes the following about the Silver Code:
“Among the bibliographic rarities of medieval scriptoria, there are letters of the owners and entire codes written on painted parchment sheets. These include the very famous and considered the most valuable "Codex Argenteus", written in Gothic letters … The sheets of the codex are purple and the whole text is written in silver and gold letters. Of the original 330 sheets of the codex, 187 remained by 1648, and all of them have survived to this day. This code was created in the 6th century. in Upper Italy. Around the end of the VIII century. St. Ludger (744-809) carried it from Italy to Verdun. It is known that around 1600 it was the property of the Emperor of the German Holy Roman Empire Rudolf II, who at the end of his life lived in Khradčany near Prague, where he studied alchemy and collected a large library. When the Swedish general Johann Christoph Königsmark captured Prague during the Thirty Years' War, he took the code and sent it as a gift to Queen Christina of Sweden. In 1654 this code passed into the hands of the classical philologist Isaac Vossius, who lived for some time at the court of Christina. In 1665 he published the first printed edition of our Codex in Dordrecht. But even before the publication of this first edition, the manuscript was bought by the Swedish Marshal Comte de la Guardie, who ordered a silver binding for her and after that presented it to the Queen. In 1669, for her part, she donated the code to the University Library in Uppsala, where it is kept to this day. " (KUL p. 554)who lived for some time at the court of Christina. In 1665 he published the first printed edition of our Codex in Dordrecht. But even before the publication of this first edition, the manuscript was bought by the Swedish Marshal Comte de la Guardie, who ordered a silver binding for her and after that presented it to the Queen. In 1669, for her part, she donated the code to the University Library in Uppsala, where it is kept to this day. " (KUL p. 554)who lived for some time at the court of Christina. In 1665 he published the first printed edition of our Codex in Dordrecht. But even before the publication of this first edition, the manuscript was bought by the Swedish Marshal Comte de la Guardie, who ordered a silver binding for her and after that presented it to the Queen. In 1669, for her part, she donated the code to the University Library in Uppsala, where it is kept to this day. " (KUL p. 554)
In this story, new details, very important for our research, appear.
First, the word "alchemy" appears. It should be borne in mind that at that time chemical knowledge was accumulated within the framework of alchemy, and that all scientific discoveries took place there, including the discoveries of Glauber. The alchemist Johann Glauber was the first to obtain and study silver nitrate; he also conducted the so-called. the reaction of the "silver mirror", as noted above in the version of Kesler, and thus has the most direct relation to the "silver ink", i.e. to create an ink that can be used to write "silver" letters. The letters that most of the CA text is written with.
Secondly, the Swedish commander Johann Christoph Königsmark, who captured Prague during the Thirty Years' War, sent BP as a gift to Queen Christina of Sweden.
Thirdly, the Swedish marshal Comte de la Guardie bought BP from Vossius and, having ordered a silver binding for it, presented it to the Queen.
Fourth, the SA was donated (in 1669) to the University Library in Uppsala by Christina, not by the Comte de la Guardie Marshal.
All these actions raise many questions. For example: how did BP get into the hands of Vossius? Why did Marshal Comte de la Guardie give the Queen a book that had previously belonged to her? And why, having accepted the gift, the queen presented it to Uppsala University?
Only the details can help us at least partially understand this story, and we will turn to them.
Alchemy and Rudolph II
Prague in the XVI century was the European center of alchemy and astrology - writes P. Marshall in his book about Prague during the Renaissance (see MAR article about the book). She became it thanks to Rudolf II, who at the age of 24 accepted the crown of the king of Bohemia, Austria, Germany and Hungary and was elected emperor of the Holy Roman Empire and soon after that moved his capital and his court from Vienna to Prague. Among the hundreds of astrologers, alchemists, philosophers and artists who went to Prague to enjoy the chosen society were the Polish alchemist Mikhail Sendigovius, who is most likely the discoverer of oxygen, the Danish aristocrat and astronomer Tycho Brahe, the German mathematician Johannes Kepler, who discovered the three laws of planetary motion, and many others (MAR). Among the interests and occupations of Emperor Rudolph II, one of the most important places was occupied by alchemy. To indulge in herhe turned one of the towers of his castle - the Powder Tower - into an alchemy laboratory (MAR).
“Emperor Rudolph II (1576-1612) was a patron of wandering alchemists,” says the Great Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron, “and his residence was the focal point of alchemical science at that time. The emperor's favorites called him the Germanic Hermes Trismegistus."
Rudolph II was named “King of the Alchemists” and “Patron of Alchemists” in the article “History of Prague” (TOB), where the author - Anna Tobotras - gives the following explanations:
“At that time, alchemy was considered the most important of the sciences. The Emperor studied it himself and was considered an expert in this field. The basic principle of alchemy was faith, drawn from the Aristotleian doctrine of the nature of matter and space and Arab ideas about the properties of certain substances, which, by combining 4 elements - earth, air, water and fire - and 3 substances - sulfur, salt and silver - possibly with exact astronomical conditions, get the elixir of life, the philosopher's stone, and gold. Many were completely captured by this quest, either to prolong their own lives, or to seek power. Many others have proclaimed that they can get it. Thanks to the support of the emperor, many such personalities gathered at the court of Rudolf. (TOB)
Thus, having fallen into the hands of Rudolf II at the end of the 16th century, VR became the property of the alchemist. Subsequently, it changed its owner several times, but, as we will see below, it has been in the society of alchemists for more than half a century. Moreover, quite difficult and not accidental alchemists …
Christina, queen of Sweden (1626-1689)
“When the Swedish commander Johann Christoph Königsmark captured Prague during the Thirty Years War, he took the code from the Hradcany castle and sent it as a gift to the Swedish queen Christina,” we read in the above-quoted version of Kulundzic.
Why did Königsmark send Queen Christina a book from captured Prague as a gift? Were there other treasures more interesting to the young woman?
The answer to this question is very simple: Queen Christine (Figure 3, AKE1) was interested in and practiced alchemy herself for most of her life. The Verdun manuscript is only one of Rudolph's manuscripts that ended up in Christine's hands. She was the owner of a whole collection of alchemical manuscripts that previously belonged to Emperor Rudolf II. They fell prey to the Swedish army after the capture of Prague. Most likely, it was they who were interested in the queen, and therefore, probably, they were an essential part of the gift of the commander of Konigsmark to Christine, and the Verdun manuscript, along with other books, ended up in their company by accident.
So, Queen Christina was interested in Isama practicing alchemy for almost her entire life. She was also interested in theories about the mystical origin of the runes. She was familiar with Sendivogius's vision of the rise of the "metal monarchy of the North." In this regard, the alchemist Johannes Frank expressed hopes for an active role for Christina in this process in his treatise Colloquium philosophcum cum diis montanis (Uppsala 1651).
Christina had about 40 manuscripts on alchemy, including handbooks for practical laboratory work. Among the names of their authors, for example, the following can be named: Geber, Johann Scotus, Arnold de Villa Nova, Raymond Lul, Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, George Ripley, Johann Grashof.
Her collection of printed books numbered several thousand volumes. There is a document in the Bodelian Library in Oxford that contains a list of Christina's books. A document with such content is also in the Vatican Library.
In 1654, Queen Christina abdicated the throne and moved to Rome. Her interest in alchemy increased; in Rome, she acquired her own alchemical laboratory and conducted experiments.
All this information about Queen Christina is taken from the article by Susanna Ackerman AKE1, containing the results of her many years of research on the life and work of Queen Christina. In it, S. Ackerman also cites one more fact that is extremely important for the problems of interest to us: Queen Christina was in correspondence with one of the most famous and talented alchemists of that time - with Johann Rudolf Glauber, who is, in a sense, the discoverer of the "silver ink" "Purple parchments".
Isaac Vossius
After several years in the library of Queen Christine, the Verdun manuscript passed to her librarian. S. Ackerman writes that in 1655 the queen
“… Gave a large collection of alchemical manuscripts to her librarian Isaac Vossius. These manuscripts previously belonged to Emperor Rudolf II and were in German, Czech and Latin. The collection itself, called the Codices Vossiani Chymici, is now at Leiden University. (AKE1;
Elsewhere (AKE2; S. Ackerman explains that alchemical manuscripts from the collection of Rudolph were given to Vossius as payment for his services: during his stay at the Queen's court, he had to work on the creation of the Academy in Stockholm, whose purpose was to study But the money for this undertaking ran out, and when Christina abdicated the throne, she repaid Vossius for her labors with books. other collections in Antwerp, and there they were located in the gallery of the market. Vossius, according to S. Ackerman, took the manuscripts due to him from there. According to her, these were copies mainly of the era of Rudolf II;their appearance was not very attractive (They are not lavish presentation copies but rather are plain copies …). There is information that, apparently, Vossius was going to exchange them for other manuscripts that interested him.
However, what exactly (and why) got Vossius is not fully understood. According to S. Ackerman, this could be the object of further research.
We need this information in order to try to figure out one of the most important circumstances in the history of the Silver Code: was it among the manuscripts from the collection of Rudolph II that Vossius inherited?
Firstly, CA is not an essay on alchemy, but on a completely different topic. Secondly, the appearance of all the "Prague" alchemical manuscripts of Vossius is very unsightly, and they are "simple copies", while in no way it can be said about the SA that it is a "simple copy". Thirdly, Vossius's alchemical manuscripts date back to the end of the 16th century …
All of this suggests that the SA would be the "black sheep" among the manuscripts that make up Vossius's "payment". But the Verdun manuscript - if it was a simple copy, and not the Codex Argenteus - could have ended up in their company. Although, most likely, BP was not included in the "fee"; if it was a simple copy, then most likely it was not given much importance, and Vossius could easily have just taken it "for a while" from the collections of books and manuscripts of Queen Christina.
Francis Junius, Derrer and Marshal Comte de la Guardie
Let's return again to Metzger's story quoted above about the history of Codex Argenteus.
From it we learned that Vossius showed the manuscript to his uncle Francis Junius, an expert in the ancient Teutonic languages. Seeing the translation of the Gospels into the "Gothic language," Junius considered it the finger of Providence; realizing that the manuscript is a unique document, he began to prepare
"The first printed edition of the version of the Gospels of Ulfilas (Dordrecht, 1665)." Here we will not touch upon the issue of whether the versions of the Gospels contained in the Codex Argenteus can be considered Ulfila's versions; it would be more accurate to say that it was a publication of the Gospels from a manuscript, in the same "Gothic language".
As it turns out from Metzger's words, this edition required a "transcription" of the text of the manuscript. In other words, the list was made - most likely, clearer and more legible. A scientist named Derrer had to unravel the handwriting of the manuscript scribe.
And this is where the Swedish Marshal Count de la Guardie appears in the history of the Codex. According to Kulundzic, he bought the manuscript from Vossius, then ordered a silver binding for her (therefore, he understood its value) and then presented it to the queen.
Yes, most likely, the marshal gave Queen Christina the Codex Argenteus - the manuscript that is now in Uppsala. This is truly a royal gift.
But what did he buy from Vossius? The Verdun manuscript? Apparently not. The logic of facts leads us to the following hypothesis:
The Swedish Marshal Count de la Guardie bought - or rather ordered - a "royal" copy from the Verdun manuscript; a list on high quality parchment, made at the best calligraphy of the time, using the technologies advanced for that era. A list that is a true work of art, worthy of perpetuating the text of the Verdun manuscript, and worthy of being a gift to the Queen. This list is Codex Argenteus.
The further fate of the Silver Code is also logical. Is Derrer its creator? Perhaps further research will answer this question.
Dating: ХVІІ century
The analysis of the history of the Silver Code carried out here gives a lot of arguments in favor of the hypothesis formulated above about its creation. However, this analysis is not proof of it. The probability remains (in the opinion of the author of these lines is very small) that the traditional version, which attributes the creation of the SA to the masters at the court of King Theodoric in Ravenna, is correct.
In addition, the use of glass vessels in alchemy, which began in the 1620s, created the potential for separate "technological breakthroughs": someone from the circle of alchemists close to Glauber could create an analogue of ink for "silver letters" shortly after 1620 … This means that we cannot exclude the possibility that the "royal list" from the Verdun manuscript - in silver and gold letters - was made, for example, between 1648 and 1654 at the court of Christina in Stockholm, or even somewhat earlier, in Prague, in the Khradchansky castle. But, given the pace of development of alchemical knowledge and alchemical practice, the likelihood of the appearance of a manuscript like the Silver Code at the beginning of the period 1620-1660 should be assessed as small; it sharply increases towards the end of this period, i.e. by 1660.
Thus, based on these considerations, we suggest the following dating of the Silver Code: the probability that it was created before 1620 is close to zero; starting from 1620 this probability increases and reaches a maximum around 1660, when the existence of the code is already beyond doubt.
Figures 4 and 5 show what an early 16th century manuscript looks like with a golden letter in close-up.
Early 16th century manuscript with gold letters
Golden letter (enlarged)
Jordan Tabov