Modern scientific research increasingly confronts scientists with the need to find common ground between science and Buddhism. This is especially true of such a controversial and little-studied sphere in the West as the functioning of consciousness.
There are many ways to describe the purpose of the Buddhist path. For example, it can be said that its goal is to end suffering and achieve a state of timeless happiness. We can also say that the absolute goal is the state of Buddha, Enlightenment, or, by whatever word we call it, the state of highest functioning when wisdom, active and all-encompassing love, fearlessness, joy and many other qualities reach their perfection. And if we want to focus on the basis or cause of this higher state, then for a Buddhist it is the knowledge of the perfect nature of our own mind.
The last definition is significant in that it clearly reflects the common interests of Buddhism and science. For example, psychophysiology, especially cognitive neuroscience, in the last ten to fifteen years has been paying more and more attention to the study of the mind, i.e. consciousness. Some researchers are overwhelmed with unprecedented enthusiasm at the mere thought of the coming of the day when finally all states of consciousness and even consciousness itself can be explained using neurobiological processes. Why do modern scientists believe that we will soon have a materialistic explanation of the phenomenon of consciousness, and what hypotheses are the most popular? What are these views and can they be combined with the Buddhist concept of consciousness?
History of the study of consciousness
The scientific study of consciousness began in the 19th century. In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt opened the world's first psychological laboratory in Leipzig. He set out to explore consciousness through "experimental introspection." Measurable stimuli have been used to induce various states of consciousness. It was originally assumed that these states, like chemical compounds, have a complex structure. The task of introspection was to recognize these structures and thus identify the main components.
Having established the connection of mental processes with external measurable stimuli and reactions, Wundt made a revolution in psychology and transferred it from the category of the humanities to the natural sciences. However, disagreements over the content and meaning of inner experiences could not be overcome, which is why, by the beginning of the 20th century, both consciousness and experimental introspection had become taboo topics in psychology. John Watson, the founder of behaviorism, the mainstream of psychology in the first half of the 20th century, stated: "It seems that the time has come when psychology must completely disown consciousness … its only task is to predict and control behavior, and introspection cannot be among its methods."
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Only in the 1980s did the situation begin to change, and the problem of consciousness aroused a new wave of interest. To some extent, this turn can be explained by the growing understanding that psychology, which excludes the phenomenon of consciousness from consideration, is not a full-fledged science, since psychology is the study of behavior and inner experiences. Interest in the phenomenon of consciousness has also revived due to the emergence of new, more sophisticated methods of observing changes in the human brain and body. In addition, the boundary between philosophy and science began to blur when the “mind-body” problem ceased to be purely philosophical and it became possible, at least partially, to empirically investigate it. A new science, neurophilosophy, began to deal with the problems at the junction of these two disciplines.
In developmental psychology, the presence of the concept of self-awareness is directly linked to the ability of the individual to recognize himself in the mirror.
Terminology
Before we start a substantive conversation, it is necessary to determine the meaning of the term "consciousness".
Consciousness as a state of wakefulness
Consciousness often refers to the waking state. An aware person is usually able to perceive information and interact with the outside world or communicate. In this sense, consciousness lends itself to quantitative measurement - from the deepest unconsciousness (coma) to the state of the highest clarity or mindfulness.
Consciousness as a sensation (inner experience)
If we are awake or conscious in the sense described above, then we are usually aware of something. In other words, in its second meaning "consciousness" describes the content of our subjective sensations over a period of time. For example, our perception of ourselves as a person versus our inability to feel like a stone, for example. Here we are dealing with the qualitative, subjective side of consciousness, which philosophers often call "Qualia" (lat. Qualia).
Consciousness as (hidden) knowledge
In everyday speech, the word "consciousness" is used in a more general sense. For example, I realize from the very morning that I wanted to meditate tonight, even if I didn’t think about it during the day.
Below are some more interpretations of the term "consciousness" in the sense of self-awareness.
Self-awareness as self-confidence or self-confidence
We talk about self-awareness when it is necessary to show how deeply we trust ourselves, our personality. Someone who speaks very confidently in front of a large audience has a developed self-awareness. If he only talks about himself all the time, then he may have an overestimated self-esteem.
Self-awareness as self-awareness
The ability to be aware of oneself, i.e. to have an idea or concept of your personality is also called self-awareness. In developmental psychology, the presence of the concept of self-awareness is directly linked to the ability of the individual to recognize himself in the mirror. It is believed that children from one and a half years old are capable of this, as well as chimpanzees and orangutans, while other primates are not.
Self-awareness as awareness of our ability to be aware
We have the ability to be aware of our state of mind. They help us explain our behavior to ourselves: our desires, perceptions, expectations and beliefs often color our speech very strongly.
As you can see from this short and far from complete list, the term "consciousness" has many interpretations, and it is very important to understand what we are talking about before entering into a discussion.
In this article, we will use the word "consciousness" to mean "waking state" and "sensation."
Consciousness in psychophysiology
In psychophysiology, much attention is paid to the study of the neurological foundations of the states of sleep and wakefulness. There are two main directions in this area:
measuring the electrical activity of the brain in various states of consciousness and
the influence of certain brain structures on the regulation of various states of consciousness.
In 1929, Hans Berger, an Austrian living in Jena at the time, published an article "On the human encephalogram." In this work, he described the phenomena discovered at the end of the 19th century by the Liverpool physician Richard Caton. Using the simplest means, Caton measured electrical signals on the surface of the brain of animals and found that the studied indicators changed when light entered the subject's eye. Berger borrowed this principle from human experimentation - he made electrical measurements by attaching sensors to the head of his bald-shaven son, Klaus.
Despite the fact that these studies gained worldwide fame, in 1938 the Nazis forced Berger to close the laboratory. And in 1941, after a series of tragic incidents, the scientist committed suicide. Berger's goal was to study the physiological foundations of consciousness, so the first article of the researcher ended with an extensive list of questions that his scientific successors worked on and are still working on. He was primarily interested in the impact that sensory stimulation, sleep, mind-altering psychotropic substances and mental activity have on the EEG.
Berger distinguished two rhythms that arose in the waking state: an alpha rhythm with a frequency of 8-13 Hz, called a "passive EEG" and usually observed with the subject's eyes closed, and a beta rhythm with a frequency above 13 Hz, observed in the active phase of the brain … It soon became clear that slower rhythms - theta waves (4-7 Hz) and delta waves (less than 3.5 Hz) are associated with states of sleep, decreased activity and / or anxiety.
The state of meditation has specific characteristics that distinguish it from states of relaxation, sleep, hypnosis, and normal wakefulness.
Several decades later, it was discovered that during sleep, there are several so-called REM sleep phases (REM-phase, from REM-phase), i.e. periods characterized by rapid eye movements (with closed eyes), during which a person sees dreams and experiences them intensely. The EEG during this phase is very similar to the EEG of an awake person, while during phases other than REM, slower delta rhythms predominate, which is why these phases are also called "slow or slow-wave sleep."
In addition, several studies have examined the effect of meditation on EEG patterns. Generally speaking, the state of meditation has specific features that distinguish it from states of relaxation, sleep, hypnosis, and normal wakefulness. For example, as one large-scale study of the brains of Zen Buddhists with extensive meditation experience showed, alpha rhythms became increasingly dominant shortly after meditation began. Then their intensity increased, and the frequency dropped to seven to eight waves per second (7–8 Hz) - the nature of waves atypical for the average person. Moreover, these changes in the EEG largely corresponded to the assessment of the meditation state of the participants in the experiment, which was given by their mentor.
However, further research is needed to finally establish the nature of the influence exerted by different types of meditation on brain activity and to assess the significance of the resulting changes.
The study of various types of activation of the brain and stimulation of consciousness also poses the task of finding out which structures of the brain are involved in the regulation of the corresponding states, which processes occur at the level of nerve cells and which chemicals are involved in this. And although this is a very important area of knowledge, I will not dwell on it in detail, since its serious analysis involves the attraction of a large amount of information, which is beyond the scope of our article.
So far we have looked at how different states of (waking) consciousness manifest themselves in measurable brain activity. Now we come to an even more fascinating, as it seems to me, topic - the content of consciousness. The study of visual perception to a large extent contributed to a detailed and detailed deciphering of the neural mechanisms involved in the manifestation of all kinds of elements of consciousness. So, today it is known that at least 30–40 functional and anatomical regions of the brain take part in visual perception, and that visual information "flows" through these areas in parallel, but connected streams. Further, areas of the brain were found that are active in the processing of one or another type of information, such as, for example,fusiform face area ("spindle-shaped area of face recognition") and parahippocampal place area ("parahippocampal area of spatial recognition" - a region of the brain located in the hippocampus region, which allows a person to imagine all kinds of landscapes or spatial images)
In the first area, brain activity increases when the subject needs to recognize faces, and in the second, when it is necessary to concentrate on any spatial images, for example, images of buildings. The activation of each of the corresponding zones is registered even when transparent pictures with the image of a face and a house are superimposed on each other, and the subject simply needs to direct attention to one or another object.
One often hears the opinion that the cause or source of consciousness is the corresponding processes in the brain.
It can be concluded that at this stage of information processing, cerebral activity is more correlated with the content of consciousness than with the physical properties of the pathogen. These and many other experiments are the basis of the belief of neuroscientists that any change in sensation or behavior is reflected in a change in the nature of neuronal activity.
Further, it is customary to distinguish between explicit and implicit neuronal processes. The former correspond to conscious perception, the latter correspond to reactions to a stimulus that is not perceived consciously. A classic example is blindsight.
Partial destruction of the primary visual cortex leads to blindness in the corresponding area of the visual field. However, some patients are able to see objects in this area without knowing it. When, for example, the Latin letters "X" and "O" were alternately projected into the "blind spot" of their visual field, they said that they did not see anything. But when they were asked to guess which letter was depicted, the percentage of correct answers was much higher than the average. In the same way, the unconscious ability to distinguish the position of objects in space, movements, simple shapes and colors was proved. Of course, the patients themselves are unlikely to find any practical use for this ability, since it cannot be consciously evoked and used in their daily activities.
But for understanding the mechanism of visual processes and the states of consciousness associated with them, it is very important. One recent study has compared the activation areas in the brains of blind patients with conscious and unconscious recognition of visual stimuli. The results showed that there are not quantitative differences here (i.e., greater or lesser activity in one or another area of the brain): it turns out that during conscious and unconscious perception, strictly defined areas are activated. It is hoped that such discoveries will help reveal the difference between conscious and unconscious processes. In the meantime, these studies are in their infancy, and it remains only to wait if the results are confirmed.
This brief overview provides an insight into the means by which neuroscientists explore the processes of perception and consciousness. Now let's turn to how they explain the emergence of consciousness.
What is consciousness and how does it arise?
Neurological theories of consciousness
Based on the ever-growing body of knowledge about the mechanisms of the brain involved in the processes of conscious and unconscious perception, some scientists have begun to theoretically study the aspects of brain activity responsible for the emergence of consciousness.
And although one usually speaks of “neural correlates of consciousness” (NCC), one often hears the opinion that, in fact, the cause, or source, of consciousness is the corresponding processes in the brain. Theories of the emergence of consciousness are very different, but nevertheless several of them agree on the necessity of the existence of a certain, covering the entire brain of nervous activity, which determines consciousness to the greatest extent. Today, most scientists consider this to be a nervous activity synchronized in a frequency range of about 30–90 Hz (the so-called gamma range), when a large number of nerve cells simultaneously experience an electrical discharge at a rate of 30–90 times per second (“burning”) …
Transferring information by synchronizing nerve cells has many benefits. Thus, each nerve cell can dynamically participate in many processes. There is also evidence that synchronous combustion is very important for the perception of objects. Here's a simplified example: we see a red circle. Since color (red) and shape (circle) are processed by different neural groups, a so-called binding problem arises. How are different signs combined or linked so that in the end we perceive the red circle? It is assumed that this occurs by synchronizing the neural groups involved in the process in the gamma range.
A colleague of mine, Thomas Gruber, has kindly provided me with the results of one of his experiments in this area. First, he let the subjects look at pictures of various objects drawn in pencil. Then he showed them the same drawings, but the objects on them were dismembered so that the form was hardly recognizable or not recognizable at all. The network of 128 electrodes measured the electrical activity on the scalp of the subjects (EEG). As shown in the graph, in the case when the object was still recognizable, there was a significant increase in synchronization in the gamma range, when it was impossible to recognize the object, there was practically no increase in synchronization.
One of the main promoters of the view that gamma synchronization is critical in the mechanisms responsible for visual awareness is Wolf Singer, head of the Max Planck Institute for Brain Research in Frankfurt.
Correlation cannot be viewed as a causal relationship
The fundamental view in neuroscience that the brain is the basis of all measurable and non-measurable mental processes is rarely questioned. From this point of view, the results of these studies practically force us to conclude that such processes in the brain are indeed the root cause of consciousness.
But if we dig deeper, we will see that there is no convincing explanation as to how the psychological processes accompanying the processes of consciousness can be the source of the latter. And although many people think that the study of the neuronal correlates of consciousness will answer the question of the origin of the latter, it remains completely unclear how something spiritual arises as a result of the material process.
In Buddhist philosophy, on the contrary, the thesis of the primacy of matter is questioned. Any perception of matter is a process of consciousness. Therefore, it is impossible to speak of any object (matter, brain) as independently existing from the experimenting and analyzing observer (subject). In addition, physics, especially quantum physics, whose goal is to explain the foundations of the material world, shows that behind the idea of physical existence there is an extremely simplified perception of reality, and our concepts of the microcosm, built on the logic "either - or" cannot be considered absolutely correct.
According to the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the trajectory of a particle, described by coordinates and velocity (more precisely, momentum - derivatives of velocity and mass), cannot be precisely determined. The more accurately we determine the coordinates, the less accurately the speed can be determined, and vice versa. It turns out that not the particle is uniquely in one state or another, but the measurement process itself. In other words, the answer in each case is determined by the question itself - we get different data on the state of the particle, depending on which parameter we are measuring. Obviously, here one can doubt the truth of the idea of an unambiguous, clearly defined way of existence of the smallest constituent particles of matter, unless, of course, we become content with primitive ideas about the manifestation of the phenomenal world,but we will try to investigate their essence deeper and deeper.
There are still many undiscovered possibilities here, and what we will observe depends on the very process of observation and methods of measurement. How can something without independent properties be the basis of independent existence? Nor does the statement about the existence of the smallest indivisible particles stand up to logical analysis. Indivisible particles would not have properties such as extensibility, directions of extension, different sides, etc. If they possess these properties, then they are subject to further division. And if they do not have these properties, then they cannot in any way be constituent parts of larger bodies, because the latter could not take a certain form without the concepts of “top”, “bottom”, etc.
Any attempt to prove the existence of matter is a conscious process. Since matter cannot arise independently of consciousness, the idea that the material brain is the basis of everything, including consciousness, seems extremely arbitrary. This idea is born because our mind is subject to an unusually strong habit of looking outward without having the experience of being aware of itself. As a result, we ascribe a greater reality to the experienced external phenomena than to the internal space or the mind, which cognizes all this.
Since matter never arises independently of consciousness, and during meditation, on the contrary, such states appear when we are simply aware, not needing an object of awareness, it is not difficult for a meditating Buddhist to perceive mind and consciousness as the basis of all experiences. To clarify this view for a scientist who is not engaged in meditation, a very powerful argument would be scientific proof that consciousness can exist independently of the brain matter. This is where interesting research from the UK comes in. The researchers interviewed many patients who had suffered cardiac arrest but were brought back to life.
Cardiac arrest is considered a condition when we are closest to clinical death. Of particular interest in the context of the brain-consciousness relationship is the fact that although there is no measurable brain activity for 10–20 seconds after cardiac arrest, about ten percent of the patients surveyed remember their experiences during cardiac arrest. At the same time, most of these memories are comparable to the experience already studied - they can be attributed to the so-called "near-death experiences", when the dying see a tunnel, clear light, deceased relatives or mystical creatures, and also perceive themselves outside their body and see everything from above.
The manifestation of clear, structured thought processes in the presence of attentiveness and memory at a time when brain activity is not recorded is not easy to explain by means of generally accepted in science interpretations of the experience of clinical death. For example, hallucinations caused by various substances usually occur only in a functioning brain. In addition, it is argued that thought processes depend on the interaction of several areas of the brain, which is impossible in a state of clinical death. In addition, reminiscence (ability to remember, memory) is considered in medicine to be a very accurate indicator of the severity of brain damage: patients usually do not have any memories from the moment immediately before the brain damage and the first time after it. The same memory loss should occur with cardiac arrest.
These and similar arguments can be brought against the usual interpretation of the experience of clinical death, although it cannot be completely ruled out that the memories of the interviewed patients are not actually memories, reconstructions, created (even if unconsciously). Undeniable and extremely convincing, in my opinion, is the argument that some patients were able to remember what happened around them during cardiac arrest and subsequent resuscitation, and the clinic staff who were present there confirmed the correctness of these memories. And the patients were able to communicate what was happening around them, despite the fact that their brains, no doubt, could not perform the functions responsible for the processes of consciousness. If the brain were the source of consciousness, then such memories would be impossible.
The above reasoning was supposed to show the relationship to the topic of consciousness in modern neuroscience. Of course, this review is incomplete, and in some places extremely simplified. In addition, not every psychophysiologist shares the views presented here. For example, recently new approaches to the study of the discussed problem have appeared, which in the future may turn out to be important and interesting. For example, some scientists have noticed a large disparity in research. While a lot of knowledge about a wide variety of brain processes has been accumulated, systematized and detailed, we still know little about the aspect that we, in fact, are trying to explain.
We know relatively little about the very phenomenon of experience, sensation, and we rely on the assumption that everyone will experience approximately the same, being exposed to the same stimuli. Science is still very far from the detailed systematization of sensation itself. Some researchers have come to the curious conclusion that meditation can be used as a well-tried and structured tool for exploring experiences. It remains only to wait for this approach to gain wider acceptance, and when laboratories are filled with experimental meditators.
What does all of the above give us? Hopefully, I was able to make it clear that neuroscience has achieved unprecedented results in explaining the brain processes that interconnect with our experiences. This knowledge will be very useful for creating intelligent robots. In medicine, this knowledge is key to the development of cochlear implants and artificial retinas to enable people to regain hearing and vision.
If we want to know our mind and consciousness, then after reading this article it should have become clear that one scientific approach is not enough. Discussions on this topic (I hope this article too) can be helpful in clearing up misunderstandings and developing a clearer view of how our mind and its function of consciousness cannot be explained. They should reinforce the conviction that any approach that sees object and subject as separate elements is limited. Real knowledge, on the other hand, arises when we let go of all this and stay in what is really real. When we are aware without needing an object of awareness; when a natural state arises, free from concepts and ideas, then suddenly there is an experience of the fundamental existence of all phenomena.
(Peter Malinowski Born in 1964, Doctor of Psychology, studies psycho-physiology. Since 1990, student of Lama Ole Nydahl.)
1: In the Russian-language scientific literature there are no generally accepted designations for these so-called "markers" - the abbreviations FFA and PPA, respectively, or detailed explanations of the original English terms are used most often. Approx. translator.
2: Abroad, and in recent years also in Russia, the alternative term “neuroscience” has become widespread, mainly due to the fact that neurobiology is penetrating deeper into the field of psychology. Approx. translator.
Methods of psychophysiology
The breakthrough in the development of new methods for measuring brain activity only recently made it possible to learn about the brain, which was discussed in this article.
In the electroencephalogram (EEG) method, multiple electrodes are placed on the scalp of a subject to measure the changes in electrical voltage that occur when exposed to a stimulus. It is believed that this is how the electrical activity of many simultaneously acting neurons is measured. And if the exact determination of the source of activity is problematic, since the registration of signals is carried out at some distance from the brain itself, then the accuracy of measuring the time is very high and lies in the range of milliseconds.
Likewise, magnetoencephalography (MEG) measures the magnetic field generated by the electrical activity of neurons. This method is technically much more difficult to organize, but its advantage is that the signal is less jammed by the skull and scalp.
Both of these methods are especially sensitive to changes in brain activity over time, while the methods described below are used when it is necessary to obtain more accurate information about which areas of the brain are involved in certain functions.
In positron emission tomography (PET), the subject is injected with a radioactive substance containing subatomic particles with short half-lives that emit gamma quanta (positrons). Since blood pressure rises in certain areas of the brain when they are active, more of the injected substance gets into these areas. This radiation can be detected by sensors mounted on the head, and thereby determine which areas of the brain are especially active during certain cognitive processes.
Further, functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) allows you to register an increase in blood flow during mental activity. For this, a very strong external magnetic field is generated, which sets the direction of motion of hydrogen nuclei (protons). A magnetic pulse is then produced to force the protons to move in the other direction. In this case, the time during which the protons return to their original position is recorded. This time characterizes the properties of the substance and can be used to detect changes in the oxygen content in the blood.
Since changes in blood flow are relatively slow, both of these methods provide limited information about changes over time, but they can determine the location of objects with millimeter precision.
Links to psychology
The reader may ask the question: how are psychology and psychophysiology related? For this case, here is a brief explanation of the terms. When we talk about psychology, we usually mean the field of knowledge that deals with the study, diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders. But it would be more correct to call it clinical psychology and psychotherapy. It should be noted that psychoanalysis, founded by Sigmund Freud, is usually regarded as a special (and far from the only!) Form of psychotherapy, which is based on certain ideas about a person. Another area - cognitive psychology - studies the properties of human intelligence and thinking. This area of psychology includes such important sections as the psychology of perception, attention and memory, psycholinguistics, and recently the psychology of consciousness has become increasingly important. Cognitive psychology is strictly scientific. Closely related to it is Cognitive Neuroscience, which deals with the biological foundations of cognition. Along with the above, there is a section of neuropsychology, which studies the problem of accurate diagnosis of brain damage and treatment of the consequences of their impact on the mental abilities and psyche of the victim.
Author: Peter Malinovsky