He dealt with two wives, did not even spare his own mother. He may have planned Rome's greatest fire. But, contrary to the statements of his enemies, he would never play the cithara, watching from a safe refuge as his city burns. Today historians say: Nero was by no means a fiend of hell.
An inconspicuous city garden, painted with ridiculous graffiti, is laid out on the Oppian Peak in the center of Rome. During the day, teenagers lazily chase the ball here, elderly couples walk their pets, and in the evenings tramps make bonfires, not suspecting that the ruins of the greatest palace in the history of Rome lie under their feet.
This is Domus Aurea (Latin for "Golden House"), which was built by 30-year-old Nero. Even before the end of construction in 68 AD, the fantasy world created by the emperor of Rome rapidly disintegrated. And then Nero ordered one of his henchmen to cut his throat and, according to eyewitnesses, said with his last breath: “Qualis artifex pereo! "(" What a great artist dies! "). Subsequent emperors took up the alteration of the palace, and perhaps even abandoned construction altogether, until finally, in 104 AD, Trajan used its walls and vaults for the foundation to build the famous baths. After that, for a millennium and a half buried underground, the palace was consigned to oblivion.
In 1480, on the Oppian summit of the Esquiline Hill, excavators uncovered the ruins of what they then assumed were the baths of Emperor Titus. When the ground under one of them collapsed and the poor man successfully fell on a heap of rubble, his gaze opened the ceiling, painted with frescoes of amazing beauty. The news of this event immediately spread throughout Italy. The great artists of the Renaissance - Pinturicchio, Raphael, Giovanni Udine - visited here to see (and later reproduce in the Vatican and in other palaces) unusual ancient ornaments, later called grotesques, since the chambers of the palace, where they were first discovered, resembled a grotto. Further excavations revealed many amazing things: long colonnades, from which once opened a beautiful view of a huge park and an artificial pond; traces of gilding and fragments of marble,mined in the distant quarries of Egypt and the Middle East; and an incomparable octagonal hall with a domed vault, the construction of which was completed six decades earlier than the majestic Pantheon.
After a partial roof collapse in 2010, Domus Aurea is still closed to the public. Employees constantly monitor the condition of the frescoes and keep the building in order, but the people walking over their heads simply do not notice the results of this selfless work. Recently retired Roman architect Luciano Marchetti was in charge of the Golden House. One morning, he froze in the cool darkness of the underground space of the octagonal hall that occupies the east wing of the palace. In the beam of a flashlight, Marchetti gazed intently at the vaults of the ceiling, consisting of eight wedges, the 15-meter base of each of which rests on the outside on the vaults of neighboring rooms, creating a feeling of weightlessness of the entire structure, as if floating in the air.
“I am deeply impressed by this structure,” he says quietly to me, pointing to the elegantly framed doorways. - At the time of construction, there was nothing that could compare with it in terms of complexity. The Pantheon is undeniably beautiful. But its dome has a cylindrical base, which was laid out brick by brick. And this vault rests on supports, completely invisible to the eyes. " Sighing in frustration, the architect whispers, "Damnatio memoriae." "Erased from memory" - such a fate befell not only the palace, but all the achievements of its owner.
Colossus and theater
Promotional video:
To the southwest of this wing of the Golden House, on the site that was an artificial lake with sea water in the time of Nero, is the Colosseum. The world-famous gigantic amphitheater, built by Vespasian, who came to power shortly after Nero's suicide [following three emperors who succeeded each other in one year of civil war - approx. translator], was named after the 30-meter bronze statue of Colossus Neronis, representing Nero in the image of the sun god. Today the Colosseum is visited by more than 10 thousand people every day. Fashion designer Diego Della Valle donated 25 million euros for its restoration last year to attract public attention. Part of the proceeds from the sale of tickets to the Colosseum goes towards the restoration of the Domus Aurea, hidden underground and soaked in moisture.
To the west of the Colosseum on the Palatine Hill are the ruins of other imperial buildings. In April 2011, the Special Directorate of the Archaeological Heritage of Rome organized an exhibition on this central of the seven Roman hills. The event was dedicated to the life and achievements of Emperor Nero; for the first time, the public could familiarize themselves with the architectural and cultural contribution of the despotic ruler to history. In addition, a recently excavated room was opened to visit, which many mistake for the famous coenatio rotunda - Nero's revolving dining room with a breathtaking view of the Albani Mountains. The organizers of the exhibition knew that the emperor's notoriety would attract visitors. But they could not have imagined such an influx of applicants: more people came than for all management events over the past ten years.
“Nero is extremely popular,” explains Roberto Gervaso, the 77-year-old, bald and cunning-eyed author of the 1978 novel Nero. - Many films have been made about him, most of the emperor is shown in caricatures. This, however, was not necessary - he was a grotesque figure in life. This blatant disregard for public opinion attracts me very much as a biographer. I would never agree to write about Saint Francis! And without hesitation, I would prefer to have dinner with Nero, and, say, not with Adrian. " But today Gervaso is having dinner with me outdoors at Osteria da Nerone, a hundred meters from the peacefully dozing Domus Aurea. This is one of the few restaurants named after the emperor. “It's always crowded here,” says the writer, explaining the popularity of the establishment with a good name. - Nobody argues, Nero was a monster. But this is not the whole truth! Well, the better are those who ruled before and after? Real monsters like Hitler and Stalin lacked Nero's vision, his imagination. Over three decades ago, I wrote a book to rehabilitate him. Maybe you will be able to help me in this matter?"
Tyrant and man
It is not so easy to understand humanly the tyrant who, according to historical evidence, arranged the murder of his first wife, Octavia; kicked Poppey's second wife in the stomach, which caused the pregnant woman to have a miscarriage, and she herself died; had a hand in an attempt on his own mother Agrippina (possibly having slept with her before that); who was probably involved in the death of Britannica's half-brother; pushed his mentor Seneca (who unquestioningly fulfilled the will of the emperor) to commit suicide; castrated a teenage boy and then married him; organized the burning of Rome, placing all the blame on the urban community of Christians (including Saints Peter and Paul), who were subsequently captured, beheaded, or crucified and set on fire like torches to illuminate the imperial holiday. It would seem that there is no doubt that Nero is the embodiment of evil. But still…
It is safe to say that the Roman Senate ordered the removal of the slightest reminders of the deeds of Nero for the good of Rome for political reasons. Perhaps due to the fact that after his death, the country was swept by a wave of popular grief, so strong that the emperor who succeeded him, Otho, hastily added the prefix Nero to his name. Or because the stream of people mourning for Nero and carrying flowers to his grave did not run out. Or maybe due to the fact that there were constantly witnesses who saw false Nero.
Alas, the dead have no shame and the story of their lives will not tell themselves. The first who wrote the biography of Nero - Suetonius and Tacitus - were closely associated with the elite of the Senate, and therefore their notes on his reign were filled with contempt. Later, melodramatic speculations would follow: the actor Ettore Petrolini portrayed Nero as a madman muttering to himself, Peter Ustinov presented him as a cowardly killer. Add to this the timeless image of a despot playing the cithara in the midst of a Roman fire. The memory of Nero was not consigned to oblivion, but the ruler of incredible talent over the millennia turned into a primitive monster.
“Today it is customary to blaspheme Nero,” argues archaeologist and journalist Marisa Ranieri Panetta. - And if you remember the great Christian emperor Saint Constantine? He dealt with the eldest son, the second wife, and the father-in-law. At the same time, one is recognized as a saint, and the other is a devil in the flesh. Or the same Augustus: he literally mowed down the ruling elite, destroying everyone who stood in his way. Rome was drowning in blood, but Augustus gracefully "promoted" all his actions, skillfully managing public consciousness. The result is known - it is considered to be a great ruler. I not only claim that Nero is an outstanding ruler, but also declare with confidence that he was better than is generally believed. And certainly no worse than those who were before and who came after him."
The energetic Ranieri Panetta is one of many eager to reconsider the reign of Nero. Not everyone, however, shares her impulse. “This rehabilitation, started by a small group of historians trying to present the Roman elite in a decent light, seems like a silly idea to me,” says Andrea Carandini, a renowned archaeologist who studies ancient Rome. “For example, some scholars argue that Nero did not start the fire. But, explain to me, how could he then build Domus Aurea? Regardless of whether Nero or someone else set fire to Rome, he was the winner."
It is worth thinking about the logic of Carandini - the fire was in Nero's hands, which means that he arranged it. After all, the flames that destroyed 10 of the 14 districts of Rome are central to the mythology of the emperor. “Even the uncompromising accuser of Nero Tacitus writes that it is not known for certain whether the fire was caused by deliberate arson or not,” reflects Ranieri Panetta's attacks. - In the days of Nero, the city was a labyrinth of narrow streets and tall buildings with wooden upper floors. Fire was used constantly - for lighting, heating, cooking. Almost every emperor survived a fire during his reign. In addition, circumstances developed so that when the Great Fire began, Nero was in his hometown of Antium (now Anzio). He hastily returned to Rome when the fire was already raging. The first mentions that,watching the flames devouring the city, Nero played the cithara, appeared one and a half centuries (!) later in the notes of Dion Cassius. Nero's contemporary Tacitus only reported that the emperor ordered to provide shelter for those who lost their homes, offered a monetary reward to those who would help restore the city in the shortest possible time, and also introduced fire safety rules and tightened control over them …
… And then he ordered to seize, accused of arson and crucified the Christians hated in those days. Then, having cleared the ashes of the Eternal City, he decided to build a Golden House on it. “Based on his actions, it is very easy to defame Nero,” Ranieri Panetta sums up. "He was too easy a target."
Emperor and Premier
“Well, what is worse than Nero? ", - wrote his contemporary poet Mark Valeriy Marcial. And he continued: “And Neron's terms, tell me which is better?"
In preparation for the construction of a new metro line in 2007, according to a project that would cross the very heart of Rome, an archaeologist from the Italian Ministry of Culture, Fyodora Filippi, excavated directly under Via Victor Emmanuel II and accidentally discovered the base of the column. Deciding to continue the excavation a little further - under the building of the Mussolini era in Piazza Navona - she came across a portico and a basin. It took more than a year to figure out the exact age of the cultural layer and carefully study the historical documents before Filippi realized that she was dealing with a huge public gymnastic complex, erected at the direction of Nero several years before the Great Fire of 64 AD. The plans for a new metro station had to be abandoned, however, as well as excavations: Filippi's important discovery attracted attention only in scientific circles.
“The construction of the gymnastic complex was only part of the changes that took place in Rome during the time of Nero,” explains Filippi. - He consistently promoted Greek culture, and with it the ideas of physical and intellectual education of young people. All this quickly spread throughout the empire. Previously, such baths could only afford to know, and Nero turned the relationship in society, putting everyone - from the senator to the groom - on the same level."
In general, Nero turned out to be a very unusual ruler. Contrary to the blood connection with Augustus both on the paternal and maternal lines, he did not at all resemble a Roman: blond-haired, blue-eyed, with a face strewn with freckles, preferring art to military affairs. His calculating and ambitious mother, Agrippina, was accused of plotting the murder of her own brother Caligula, and she poisoned her third husband Claudius with poisonous mushrooms. Having identified the Stoic philosopher Seneca as a mentor to her son, Agrippina proclaimed Nero worthy to take the imperial throne, to which he ascended in 54 AD in incomplete 17 years.
In the early years of Nero's reign, the empire flourished. He stopped the practice of secret courts, with the help of which Claudius dealt with his opponents, announced an amnesty, and every time he was asked to sign the death warrant, he sighed with regret: “I wish I could not write! ". He arranged dinners with poets - let someone say that he was quietly stealing their poems - he diligently studied playing the lyre and singing, although his voice left much to be desired. “But most of all he longed to become famous,” wrote his biographer Suetonius. However, Princeton professor Edward Champlin saw finer lines in the personality of the despotic emperor. In the popular science book Nero, Champlin describes his hero as "a restless artist and inventor who, by coincidence, managed to become the Roman emperor …ahead of his time in the management of public consciousness, with an unsurpassed instinct that allowed him to understand exactly what the people want even before the people themselves understand it. " For example, Nero invented contests in poetry, music and athletics - like the Olympic Games called "Neronias". But what was good for the people did not always appeal to the elite. As soon as Nero forced the senators to perform on an equal basis with everyone in public competitions, clouds thickened over the firmament of his golden age. As soon as Nero forced the senators to perform on an equal basis with everyone in public competitions, clouds thickened over the firmament of his golden age. As soon as Nero forced the senators to perform on an equal basis with everyone in public competitions, clouds thickened over the firmament of his golden age.
“Nobody has ever seen this, it’s like today's social networks, in which all personal space is on display,” explains archaeologist Heinz-Jürgen Best. - In Nero lived an innovative artist like Andy Warhol or Roy Lichtenstein, who tirelessly strived for new things and shared his knowledge with people. To take the same terms, so beloved by Martial, - this is the whole of Nero. After all, he created everything from scratch: public halls flooded with light, where people did not just bathe, but could look at sculptures, books and paintings by artists. You could come here just to listen to how poets read poetry. A completely new social community has developed here”.
In addition to the gymnastics complex, the young emperor built an amphitheater and a meat market; his plans included the construction of a canal that would connect Naples with the Roman port of Ostia and ensure an uninterrupted supply of food to the capital bypassing the turbulent sea waters. Such construction required resources, the source of which was usually military campaigns against neighboring countries. However, the peace-loving Nero cut off this source of treasury income. Moreover, he freed Greece from paying imperial tax, explaining his decision by the greatest cultural contribution of the Greeks to the development of Roman society.
The only way out was to impose a property tax on the rich, and in addition to take away from them part of the land needed to build the canal. The Senate immediately blocked these initiatives of the emperor, in response, Nero began to cunning. “He dragged the rich to the courts, concocting more and more new cases in order to collect large fines from them,” Besté admires his resourcefulness. It is not surprising that the emperor made himself many enemies, among whom was his mother Agrippina, who never resigned herself to the weakening of her influence. She tried to bring Britannica's adopted son to power, claiming that he was the only legitimate heir. Nero turned against himself and his mentor Seneca, who tried to weave a conspiracy to assassinate the emperor. By 65 AD, all of them - mother, half-brother and advisor - went to another world.
And Nero turned in full force. The golden age of his reign came to an end, followed by a succession of years, during which, according to Oxford historian Miriam Griffin, "Nero plunged deeper and deeper into the world of his fantasies, until finally reality fell on him with all the weight of collapsed illusions."
When, in the heart of modern Rome, pretty much beaten by the prolonged economic recession, one has to argue about the identity of the last of the emperors of the Julian-Claudian dynasty with scientists and politicians, it tends to compare Nero with the recent Italian leader Silvio Berlusconi, who always loves to be in the spotlight. “Without a doubt, Nero suffered from delusions of grandeur and was also a fool, but a fool, charming and interesting,” says Andrea Carandini. - He invented what all demagogues have adopted: ostentatious concern for the people. One day, Nero put on an incredible show, inviting the whole city to the Golden House, which then occupied a third of Rome. The resonance from the event turned out to be no worse than from television! Silvio Berlusconi followed in his footsteps, putting on real shows for the media to establish contacts with the people."
Former mayor of Rome and former minister of culture and the environment of Italy Walter Veltroni does not accept parallels between Nero and the scandalous prime minister, because, according to him, the latter, in principle, lacked a craving for culture. “Berlusconi was not interested in archeology at all, he simply did not know that word,” says Veltroni (by the way, it was Berlusconi who lost the election race in 2008). - I think Domus Aurea is the most beautiful and mysterious place in the city. When I was Minister of Culture in the late 1990s, I brought here filmmaker Martin Scorsese: the grotesque made an indelible impression on him."
The entire palace complex was arranged in the form of a huge stage, decorated with trees, lakes and walking paths, where anyone could come. “And yet,” agrees Nero's defender Ranieri Panetta, “the construction turned into a scandal, because a third of the city was occupied by one person. And it's not a matter of luxury - by that time, palaces in Rome had been built for several centuries. The reason is the incredible land area. Graffiti full of sarcasm began to appear throughout the city: “Romans, there is no more room for you here. Go to the village of Veii. " Despite its openness, the main purpose of the palace was to demonstrate the boundless power of the owner, as evidenced by the choice of materials used in the construction. "Huge volumes of marble were not required to show wealth,- says art critic Irena Bragantini. - This multi-colored stone was imported from Anatolia, Africa, Greece to represent the emperor as the ruler of not only the peoples, but also the resources belonging to them. My research shows that during the time of Nero, for the first time there was a noticeable stratification of the middle and upper classes of society, because only the emperor had the right to give people marble."
This is the main paradox of Nero's reign: more and more surrendering to entertainment, he strengthened his imperial status. “Step by step moving away from the Senate, he wanted to get closer to the people and concentrate all power in his hands, like the Egyptian pharaoh,” explains Ranieri Panetta. However, there is a limit to everything, even for the emperor. As a result, Nero lost the support of both the Senate and the people.
God and man
“He wanted to be closer to people,” says professor of Greek and Roman architecture Alessandro Viskogliosi, who created the unique 3D reconstruction of the Domus Aurea. "But not as a friend, but as their deity."
In the vast territory of the former Roman Empire, there is only one place where Nero is still watched with admiration - his hometown of Anzio. Nero had another villa here, now almost completely flooded. It was possible to find many antique items on display in the local museum. Luciano Bruschini, who took over as mayor in 2009, opened a monument to the city's famous son a year later. Depicted at the age of 20, dressed in a Roman toga, the two-meter emperor stands on a column, his pensive gaze is fixed on the sea. Impressive. The full name is carved on the tablet - Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus - and the date of birth: December 15, 37 AD. Below are listed his ancestors, the text ends with the phrase: "Under his rule, peace reigned in the empire, important reforms were carried out, and it reached unprecedented greatness."
“We were taught at school that Nero was the embodiment of evil, one of the worst emperors of all time,” recalls Mayor Bruschini. - Studying historical materials, I gradually became convinced of the opposite. I consider him a good, even great ruler. No one was loved as much throughout the empire as Nero. He was an outstanding reformer. Taking away part of the wealth of the slave-owning senators, he gave it to the poor. Before us is the world's first socialist!"
Bruschini is a socialist himself. Sometimes, according to the mayor, he likes to stroll around the monument to listen to what people are talking about. They read what is written on the tablet: "Peace reigned in the empire … reforms … unprecedented greatness," and mutter through their teeth: "What nonsense! ".
It is difficult for people to part with myths. However, this is no longer so important. The Emperor is back in Anzio, at home. Again, surrounded by a crowd of people, like in the old days.
Rome of Nero
Nero built his palace Domus Aurea (Golden House) as the embodiment of imperial power. Located on an area of 100 hectares, which was previously occupied by city buildings burnt out by fire, the complex consisted of buildings, planted trees, gardens and a large artificial lake.
Domus Aurea (Golden House)
By the time Nero conceived the construction, the Roman architects Sever and Celer mastered all the subtleties of working with concrete and were able to erect wide vaults that seemed to float in the air, thanks to which sunlight filled all corners of the interior space. Shown here is a schematic reconstruction of the palace.
Colossus of Nero
Nero erected a giant bronze statue - the colossus of Nero - personifying the sun god with the features of the emperor himself, in his hand the god held the steering wheel of a ship resting on the globe - a symbol of his power at sea and on land. The statue welcomed guests at the entrance to the palace and was clearly visible through the surrounding columns to ordinary Romans in the distance. It is not known for certain how she looked in reality, the image shows an artistic reconstruction.
Robert Draper