Scientists have named the forces behind the rise and fall of great civilizations
Gogol's history teacher, at the mention of the name of Alexander the Great, began to break chairs. Today's pundits have demoted powerful kings and great heroes into blind instruments of the laws of history and economics. But it turns out that the historical processes themselves are nothing but a derivative of a chaotic set of accidents. Elemental forces or great inventions often stand behind the rise or fall of civilizations.
The collapse of the Byzantine Empire
Reason: volcanic eruptions and global cooling.
How it was determined: Scientists have reconstructed how the climate in the Northern Hemisphere has changed over the past 200 years. The source of information was the tree rings. This is an accurate indication of the level of summer temperatures. The more favorable the weather, the wider the tree rings.
Research essence:Within the framework of the international project “Global Changes in the Past” (researchers from the Sukachev Institute of Forest of the Russian Academy of Sciences and the Siberian Federal University), paleoclimatologists have established that the period of the strongest cooling over the past 2000 years fell on 536-660 years. This ice age was associated with supervolcanic eruptions. Judging by the ash deposits in the glaciers of Antarctica and Greenland, colossal emissions into the atmosphere occurred in 536, 540 and 547 AD. These were catastrophes of a planetary scale that led to the effect of a nuclear winter: millions of tons of tiny particles were thrown into the atmosphere and blocked the Sun. This phenomenon was described by the Byzantine chronicler Procopius: “All year the sun emitted light like the moon, without rays, as if it had lost its strength, having ceased to shine as before, pure and bright”.
Siberian scientists found that in Altai during this period, frosts down to -4 Celsius occurred even at the height of summer. Epidemics of diseases were added to the series of poor harvests. According to one version, it was the sudden cold snap that led to the mutation of the causative agent of bubonic plague. 5 years after the onset of cold weather, the Justinian plague struck Byzantium, which killed about 100 million inhabitants. This led to the weakening of Byzantium and the empire lost vast territories. The Arab tribes took advantage of the situation. Indeed, in the Arabian Peninsula, as a result of global cooling, the climate has become softer and more humid, therefore, the yield has increased. This stimulated a population explosion, and on the other hand, made it possible to significantly increase the number of camels, which were the main means of transportation for the army. This is how the Arab Caliphate received resources for expansion.
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Tatar-Mongol yoke
Reason: The appearance of a new kind of troops among the Tatars - engineering units and throwing artillery. The Russians underestimated that the Mongols were the only nomadic invader in the world who knew how to take well-fortified cities.
How it was determined: They studied the siege technologies of the Mongols and the fortification features of Russian fortresses of the pre-Mongol period. They had significant flaws. For example, there were no combat towers for flanking fire (that is, along the walls). This allowed the attackers to push powerful Chinese-made throwing machines close to the walls (at a distance of 100-150 meters).
Research essence:Almost all large cities of Russia were taken by the Mongols by storm in 6, maximum 10 days. This indicates the application of some kind of know-how. After all, before the Mongols, only isolated cases of the capture of Russian fortresses during raids are known (as a rule, they were taken outright when people were taken by surprise). The walls of Russian cities were made of wood and earth fortifications that were not designed for a serious long siege. Since they were built mainly for protection from nomads, and they did not know how to besiege fortresses. Therefore, the Russian princes with a clear conscience left the family in the fortress and went to collect the militia to fight the Mongols. They hoped that the townspeople, as before, would sit out behind the fortress walls, and the Mongols, having ruined the suburbs, would be forced to go further to find food for the horses. But according to the orientalist Roman Khrapachevsky,Director of the Center for the Study of Military and General History, Genghis Khan's soldiers for 10 years of hostilities in China mastered the most advanced siege technologies in the world at that time (and developed them creatively). The basis of a new new kind of troops - stone-throwing artillery, were representatives of the peoples conquered during the Chinese campaign. According to the chronicles, out of 5 commanders of artillery groups, two were Chinese, two were representatives of the Jurchens, and only one was the Mongolian Anmukhai. The invaders were armed with vehicles capable of breaking walls with stones weighing 60-80 kilograms from a distance of 100-200 meters. Moreover, the Mongols did not take them with them, but erected them on the spot in a few days. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon. For 10 years of hostilities in China, Genghis Khan's warriors mastered the most advanced siege technologies in the world at that time (and developed them creatively). The basis of a new new kind of troops - stone-throwing artillery, were representatives of the peoples conquered during the Chinese campaign. According to the chronicles, out of 5 commanders of artillery groups, two were Chinese, two were representatives of the Jurchens, and only one was the Mongolian Anmukhai. The invaders were armed with vehicles capable of breaking walls with stones weighing 60-80 kilograms from a distance of 100-200 meters. Moreover, the Mongols did not take them with them, but erected them on the spot in a few days. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon. For 10 years of hostilities in China, Genghis Khan's warriors mastered the most advanced siege technologies in the world at that time (and developed them creatively). The basis of a new new kind of troops - stone-throwing artillery, were representatives of the peoples conquered during the Chinese campaign. According to the chronicles, out of 5 commanders of artillery groups, two were Chinese, two were representatives of the Jurchens, and only one was the Mongolian Anmukhai. The invaders were armed with vehicles capable of breaking walls with stones weighing 60-80 kilograms from a distance of 100-200 meters. Moreover, the Mongols did not take them with them, but erected them on the spot in a few days. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon.were representatives of the peoples conquered during the Chinese campaign. According to the chronicles, out of 5 commanders of artillery groups, two were Chinese, two were representatives of the Jurchens, and only one was the Mongolian Anmukhai. The invaders were armed with vehicles capable of breaking walls with stones weighing 60-80 kilograms from a distance of 100-200 meters. Moreover, the Mongols did not take them with them, but erected them on the spot in a few days. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon.were representatives of the peoples conquered during the Chinese campaign. According to the chronicles, out of 5 commanders of artillery groups, two were Chinese, two were representatives of the Jurchens, and only one was the Mongolian Anmukhai. The invaders were armed with vehicles capable of breaking walls with stones weighing 60-80 kilograms from a distance of 100-200 meters. Moreover, the Mongols did not take them with them, but erected them on the spot in a few days. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon. The Russians did not have the skills to fight this super weapon.
But the successes of the Mongols in Europe, which possessed more advanced stone fortresses from a fortification point of view, were much more modest.
The fall of ancient Greece
Reason: an ecological catastrophe caused by the predatory deforestation. Desertification of arable land that was planted with olive groves.
How it was determined: To reconstruct the vegetation cover in ancient times, pollen deposits in the bottom strata of old water bodies were analyzed.
Research essence:Scientists have established that in ancient times, the Greek landscape did not resemble the current dull landscape. The peninsula was almost completely covered with forests. However, the homeland of the great sailors and builders needed a huge amount of ship and timber timber. As a result, according to the testimony of the ancient Greek scientist Theophrastus, who is called the father of botany, by the end of the 4th century BC. e. the ship forest grew only in the center of the Peloponnese. The main part had to be purchased outside Greece - in Macedonia, Thrace, Italy, on the coast of Asia Minor, as well as in Syria. This is not so bad. Ancient Greece's prosperity was largely based on the export of olive oil. With the development of trade, it turned into "liquid gold" and began to play about the same role in the country's economy as oil does for today's Russia. The areas freed from the deforested forests began to be planted with olive groves. They did not require care and provided a high income. Gradually, the peasants began to abandon other crops in favor of olive trees. But the olive root system (it goes vertically downward with a rod) contributed to soil erosion and erosion. Over time, the rains washed away the fertile soil layer. Studying soil sediments in river soils, scientists have found that the peak of these processes occurred at the end of the 3rd century BC. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome. They did not require care and provided a high income. Gradually, the peasants began to abandon other crops in favor of olive trees. But the olive root system (it goes vertically downward with a rod) contributed to soil erosion and erosion. Over time, the rains washed away the fertile soil layer. Studying soil sediments in river soils, scientists have found that the peak of these processes occurred at the end of the 3rd century BC. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome. They did not require care and provided a high income. Gradually, the peasants began to abandon other crops in favor of olive trees. But the olive root system (it goes vertically downward with a rod) contributed to soil erosion and erosion. Over time, the rains washed away the fertile soil layer. Studying soil sediments in river soils, scientists have found that the peak of these processes occurred at the end of the 3rd century BC. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome. But the olive root system (it goes vertically downward with a rod) contributed to soil erosion and erosion. Over time, the rains washed away the fertile soil layer. Studying soil sediments in river soils, scientists have found that the peak of these processes occurred at the end of the 3rd century BC. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome. But the olive root system (it goes vertically downward with a rod) contributed to soil erosion and erosion. Over time, the rains washed away the fertile soil layer. Studying soil sediments in river soils, scientists have found that the peak of these processes occurred at the end of the 3rd century BC. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome. Desertification has led to a decline in agriculture. Greece could no longer feed itself and depended on grain imports from the Black Sea region. The internecine war between democratic Athens and oligarchic Sparta finished the job. Greece became an easy prey for the Macedonian conquerors, and then came under the rule of Rome.
Time of Troubles in Russia
Reason: Climate change and a sharp cold snap led to the fact that three years in a row - from 1601 to 1603, were catastrophically poor. For several years, famine raged in the country, the peasants were ruined and Russia, torn apart by internal contradictions, noticeably weakened.
How it was determined: Climatologists have established that from the beginning of the XIV century, the speed of the Gulf Stream began to slow down and the Little Ice Age began in Europe. It peaked at the beginning of the 17th century, when the level of solar activity also reached its minimum.
Research essence: The chroniclers called this time the Great Famine. At the beginning of the century, the winters were so severe that the snow fell in September, and the first frosts fell in July-August. The effect of the weakening of the Gulf Stream was amplified by the eruption of the Peruvian Huaynaputina volcano in 1600, which released huge amounts of ash into the atmosphere. All of Europe had a hard time. We sledged along the Thames and Danube. In France and Germany, birds froze on the fly.
But Russia has suffered more than other countries. According to some estimates, over 2 years out of 10 million people, about 3 million people died from malnutrition. Cannibalism flourished. Hundreds of thousands of impoverished villagers were drawn to the cities. Crowds of ruined peasants gathered in gangs and engaged in robbery. And if you remember that at the same time the tsarist dynasty of Rurikovich was suppressed, and after Ivan the Terrible the country was in economic decline, then it is not difficult to understand why Russia became an easy prey for the Polish invaders.
Yaroslav KOROBATOV
