Slavs and Byzantium
The creation of the Slavic states should be attributed to the first quarter of the 7th century, when one of the first Slavic states was formed in Moravia. The story about him has survived only in Latin sources. The beginning of the Moravian state was laid by Himself. It appeared around 622 … when the Czech Slavs were brutally oppressed by the Avars. He himself managed to organize the Slavs. During the struggle for the liberation of Moravia, they got rid of the Avars, and in 627, according to the chronicler Fredegard, Samo became king and reigned for about 35 years. From his 12 wives, he had 22 sons and 15 daughters. Having freed the Slavs from their oppressors, he successfully fought against the Franks, who began to seek an alliance with him.
It is difficult to determine the borders of the state on the scanty information available from history, but its core was Moravia, and the capital was Vysehrad. Since 641, news of Himself ceases, and its state itself then disintegrates. But it is extremely important that an initiative was made: the Slavic element managed to assert its rights, despite the brutal pressure from the Avar kaganate.
The legend about Kuver, or Kuvrat, associated with the movement against the Avar Kaganate, is characteristic. In the biography of Kuvrat, one can trace the close interaction between Byzantium and the Slavs. Kuvrat was brought up at the court of Constantinople and baptized. Personal prowess was combined in him with a broad outlook and education. Thanks to his military talent and cunning, he seized the eastern part of the territory of modern Bulgaria and Macedonia, and then in a treaty concluded with Byzantium, he stipulated that he would remain on the occupied land. In addition, one of the clauses of the agreement reserved for him the right to collect tribute from the Dregovichi. This is how a powerful power arose in the regions of eastern Bulgaria. Kuvrat died during the reign of Constant II (641-668). He was replaced by Asparukh, who after him took over the (proto) Bulgarian-Slavic union. In an effort to save himself from the offensive from the Avar Kaganate, which occupied the area between the Danube and the Tissa, Asparukh created a fortified camp at the mouth of the Danube, called Asparuhov Ugol. The Avars were already significantly constrained by Kuver from Macedonia and the Samo state. In an effort to penetrate deeper and deeper into the region of the Balkan Peninsula, the (proto) Bulgarian-Slavic union moved its capital as well. Following the Asparuhov Corner near Shumla, in the area of Aboba, the first capital of the Bulgarians was founded. From here, from Aboba (Pliska), they extended their raids to the walls of Constantinople, passing through Thrace, then rushed to Solunia. The Avars were already significantly constrained by Kuver from Macedonia and the Samo state. In an effort to penetrate deeper and deeper into the region of the Balkan Peninsula, the (proto) Bulgarian-Slavic union moved its capital as well. Following the Asparuhov Corner near Shumla, in the area of Aboba, the first capital of the Bulgarians was founded. From here, from Aboba (Pliska), they extended their raids to the walls of Constantinople, passing through Thrace, then rushed to Solunia. The Avars were already significantly constrained by Kuver from Macedonia and the Samo state. In an effort to penetrate deeper and deeper into the region of the Balkan Peninsula, the (proto) Bulgarian-Slavic union moved its capital as well. Following the Asparuhov Corner near Shumla, in the area of Aboba, the first capital of the Bulgarians was founded. From here, from Aboba (Pliska), they extended their raids to the walls of Constantinople, passing through Thrace, then rushed to Solunia.
Excavations carried out in Abobe indicate the existence of a palace with a throne room and living quarters, a pagan temple, later turned into a Christian church. These monumental buildings date back to the 8th century, they appeared later than wooden residential buildings, consisting of small rooms. The capital of the Bulgarian khans was surrounded by a wall with watchtowers, round and square. The eastern gate leading to the city is decorated with images of a horseman with a spear, a warrior in a high headdress, and a deer with branched horns. Elk antlers, wild boars and elk skulls were found in the houses. Inscriptions in honor of the heroes and statesmen of the Bulgarian Khanate in Greek were found, which retained their titles and names, as well as the names of cities that fell under the rule of the Bulgarians. On the basis of fragments of some inscriptions, one can judge about the agreements between the Bulgarians and Byzantium. Also preserved are parts of luxury items, jewelry, rings, bracelets, necklaces. Gold and copper coins, lead seals testify to the broad trade ties of the khanate.
The excavations of the first Bulgarian capital give an idea of the close connection with Byzantium was formed in the culture and writing of Bulgaria. The second capital of the Bulgarians was founded around 821 at the foot of the Balkan Mountains. Velikaya Preslava is known from the Russian chronicle. In the second half of the VII century. Byzantium was forced to pay tribute to the Bulgarians. An attempt to abandon the terms of payment led to an attack by the Bulgarians. The emperor was forced to call in cavalry from Asia, where the Armenian and Arab cavalry were especially famous. It is safe to say that the introduction of the equestrian system in the Byzantine troops, replacing the heavily armed infantry - the main force of the Greek and Roman troops - occurred under the influence of the equestrian troops of Iran and nomadic peoples on the European border.
In 688, in the Balkan klisurs (gorges), the Bulgarians were repulsed by the Byzantine troops, then they moved through Macedonia to Solun, in the area occupied by the Slavs. Byzantium took advantage of this moment and moved a large group of immigrants - Slavs - to Asia Minor, to the Opsikiy region. In fact, such colonization began earlier, since the information about the Slavic colony in Bithynia, which supplied soldiers to the empire, dates back to 650. In 710 the Bulgarian khan Tervel with 3000 Bulgarians and Slavs supported the Byzantine emperor and entered into an alliance with the Slavs of Asia Minor. In subsequent years, the Byzantine throne relied on the Bulgarian troops, who retained power to Justinian II. Khan Tervel received a high title for this, which did not prevent him, however, from raiding poorly defended Thrace, and in 712 g.walk to the golden gates of Constantinople and calmly return with huge booty. Prisoners in 715-716 and 743-759 Between the Bulgarians and Byzantium, treaties established the boundaries between the two powers, contained clauses on the exchange of defectors. Merchants, if they had a diploma with seals, had the right to cross the border without hindrance. It is interesting to note the point about the import of fine silk and ceremonial clothes to Bulgaria, as well as red, well-dressed morocco leather.well crafted morocco leather.well crafted morocco leather.
Throughout the VIII century. Bulgarians continue to attack Byzantium. Along with this, in the VIII century. new moments are also outlined: the visit of the Bulgarian khans to Constantinople did not pass without a trace. By the middle of the IX century. Bulgaria passed through the rule of Krum and Omortag, the most prominent and active of its khans. From the time of the latter, a proud inscription in Greek has been preserved, in which he imitates the titles of the Byzantine rulers.
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In the middle of the IX century. in Byzantium, a major political figure, a man of great intelligence, broad outlook and indestructible energy, Photius, emerged. A secular man, from December 20 to 25, 857, he went through all the levels of the clerical hierarchy in order to become the Patriarch of Constantinople and carry out purely political tasks. His statesmanship appreciated the significance of the changes in the ethnic composition of the empire and its neighbors. He successfully applied in a new way the old methods of Byzantium - the methods of peaceful initiation into the empire. At this moment, the awareness of the need for a political mission among the Balkan peoples matured, for the success of which the Byzantine leaders abandoned the Greek language, which gave them huge advantages over the Latin West.
Cyril and Methodius were the performers of the cultural task of world-historical significance. After 860, the brothers were sent by Photius "to the Khazars", to the southern Russian steppes inhabited by the Slavs. Cyril probably already had some of his translations into the Slavic language. Here they converted the "Fuli tribe" to Christianity. After the first success, work, no less than the first, awaited the brothers, for Rostislav, Prince of Moravia, sent ambassadors to the emperor Michael, asking for cultural and political support. The letter of Pope Nicholas V from 864 indicates that the claims of the German princes coincided with the interests of Rome as well as possible.
Cyril and Methodius arrived in Velehrad, the capital of Moravia, in 863 “and, having gathered my disciples, I teach the power”. This was possible only due to the fact that, knowing the Slavic language, they brought the letter and translation of some sacred books they had compiled, which contributed to the strengthening of the cultural independence of the Slavs, with their own language and literature. The brothers' educational activities met with opposition from the Latin clerics. In 867 the Pope, concerned about the success of the Slavic preachers, summoned them to Rome. On the way, they stopped in Pannonia, where, at the request of the Slavic prince Kocel, they taught 50 young people to read and write and left copies of their translations. In 868 the Slavic enlighteners were solemnly received in Rome by Pope Adrian II, and their great work - the Slavic translation of the scriptures - was recognized here.
The undoubted consequence of the translation of books into the Slavic language and the invention of the Slavic alphabet should be considered the introduction to Eastern Christianity of the Bulgarian state.
RUSSIA AND BYZANTIA
Like other Slavic peoples, Russia clashes with the Greek world in war and in peaceful relations. By the first quarter of the IX century. includes information about the attack of Russia on the Crimean coast from Korsun to Kerch, which belonged to Byzantium. In the second quarter of the same century, before 842 in any case, Russia attacked the Asia Minor coast of the Black Sea. The regions from Propontis to Sinop were plundered and devastated. But the most remarkable event was the Rus attack on Constantinople on June 18, 860, when 200 ships began to threaten the Byzantine capital from the sea. How high the awareness of the Slavs about the affairs of their neighbors was is evidenced by the fact that they used the time when Tsar Michael moved at the head of his troops to defend the coastal regions of Asia Minor. He hastily returned from the road, led negotiations for peace, as a result of which an agreement was concluded. From 18 to 25 June, "Rus", keeping the world capital in fear, ravaged its immediate surroundings and left without defeat.
Under the emperor Theophilus, in 839, the ambassadors of Russia were in the capital, as reported by the Vertinsky annals. There is evidence of contracts concluded in 860, 866-867. The latter had the consequence of the adoption of Christianity by Russia from the hands of Byzantium. The message of Patriarch Photius says that Constantinople were perfectly aware of the state of this state, which originated in eastern Europe.
About the developed trade of Russia in the first half of the IX century. known from the reports of the Arab geographer Ibn Khordadbeh, its area was the Black Sea. But the capital of Byzantium emitted "magic spells", which forced Russia to seek close relations with her. It was here that the desires of the Dnieper Slavs were directed, but it was not so easy to get the opportunity to trade freely in the capital. Olegov's "shield on the gates of Constantinople" was a symbol of the truly victorious campaigns of the Russians. The victories, sung in Russian and Scandinavian folk songs, preceded Oleg's treaty with Byzantium in 911. It does not mention Christianity or clerical ties, but it casually says that previous agreements testified "from many years between Christians and Russia, former love." But there are many interesting details in it. So, ambassadors from Russia were received in the capital,if they had with them the gold seals of the Russian prince, the merchants - guests - had to show silver seals and, finally, ordinary soldiers who came with the aim of being accepted into military service in Byzantium were allowed. The seals had an official meaning, made the rulers of Russia responsible for the actions of its natives, the more the prince was obliged to forbid them "to do dirty tricks in the villages in our country", that is, in Byzantine villages and regions. The ambassadors and all guests were to live on the outskirts of Constantinople near the monastery of St. Mammoth, and the first place was received by the Kievites, the second - by the Chernigovites, the third - by the Pereyaslavlites, and then others. The ambassadors received support, and the guests received a “month” in kind: bread, wine, meat, fish and fruit, and not only those who came to sell, but also buy in the capital. From here it can be seenwhat importance did the Byzantine government attach to export. A special official was assigned to keep records of guests and the "month", which was issued for no more than six months. The fears that the Russian guests aroused do not require special comment. They were released to the markets only by 50 people, without weapons, accompanied by the city "guardian of order". Upon departure, the guests received provisions and ship equipment for the journey, the latter probably due to the wear and tear of such equipment on the long journey "from the Varangians to the Greeks."Upon departure, the guests received provisions and ship equipment for the journey, the latter probably due to the wear and tear of such equipment on the long journey "from the Varangians to the Greeks."Upon departure, the guests received provisions and ship equipment for the journey, the latter probably due to the wear and tear of such equipment on the long journey "from the Varangians to the Greeks."
A new campaign with a 40-thousandth army against Byzantium was undertaken in 941 under Prince Igor, while the Byzantine fleet was distracted by the Arabs. But they failed to take Constantinople. The Russians ravaged the coast from the Bosphorus to Byzantium, moving along the shores of Asia Minor, where Byzantine troops overtook them. After a severe defeat, Igor returned across the Sea of Azov, fearing an ambush by the Pechenegs on the Dnieper. Only in 944 was the peace treaty with Byzantium renewed, but much less profitable. Some clauses of this treaty are of great interest: the Byzantine emperor received the right to summon Russian "soldiers" in wartime and, for his part, promised to provide the Russian prince with military force, obviously to protect the Byzantine regions of the Crimea, "too trebe". The protection of the Crimea was entrusted to Kievan Rus, since Byzantium itself did not have enough strength for this. The areas of Chersonesos had to be protected from black Bulgarians, and the Russian prince undertook the obligation not to let them "dirty" in the Korsun country. How can this new clause in the Russian-Byzantine agreement be explained? Is it because Russia managed to firmly establish itself near Chersonesos? Emperor Constantine Porfirogenit, a contemporary of Igor and Princess Olga, in his essay "On the Administration of the Empire" dwells in detail on the political structure and trade relations of Russia. Byzantium was perfectly aware of all Russian affairs. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, was twice in Constantinople. But the negotiations with the emperor did not satisfy her much, since he saw his support in the Pechenegs and did not seek to encourage the strengthening of Russia. How can this new clause in the Russian-Byzantine agreement be explained? Is it because Russia managed to firmly establish itself near Chersonesos? Emperor Constantine Porfirogenit, a contemporary of Igor and Princess Olga, in his essay "On the Administration of the Empire" dwells in detail on the political structure and trade relations of Russia. Byzantium was perfectly aware of all Russian affairs. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, was twice in Constantinople. But the negotiations with the emperor did not satisfy her much, since he saw his support in the Pechenegs and did not seek to encourage the strengthening of Russia. How can this new clause in the Russian-Byzantine agreement be explained? Is it because Russia managed to firmly establish itself near Chersonesos? Emperor Constantine Porfirogenit, a contemporary of Igor and Princess Olga, in his essay "On the Administration of the Empire" dwells in detail on the political structure and trade relations of Russia. Byzantium was perfectly aware of all Russian affairs. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, was twice in Constantinople. But the negotiations with the emperor did not satisfy her much, since he saw his support in the Pechenegs and did not seek to encourage the strengthening of Russia. Byzantium was perfectly aware of all Russian affairs. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, was twice in Constantinople. But the negotiations with the emperor did not satisfy her much, since he saw his support in the Pechenegs and did not seek to encourage the strengthening of Russia. Byzantium was perfectly aware of all Russian affairs. Igor's widow, Princess Olga, was twice in Constantinople. But the negotiations with the emperor did not satisfy her much, since he saw his support in the Pechenegs and did not seek to encourage the strengthening of Russia.
During the reign of Prince Svyatoslav, events of great importance took place. Emperor Nikifor Foka, wishing to bring Bulgaria into submission, but distracted by the Arabs to his Asian border, turned to the Kiev prince for help. With an army of 60 thousand, Svyatoslav invaded Bulgaria in 968 and achieved military successes. He temporarily returned to Kiev, then to return to Bulgaria. But his desire to unite Velikaya Preslava with the Kiev principality under his rule frightened Constantinople. John Tzimiskes in 971 won the support of the Bulgarians and began a brutal blockade of Dorostol, which lasted three months. He skillfully used the oversight of Svyatoslav, who did not leave guards in the mountain passages. After vain attempts to break through, Svyatoslav went to negotiations with Tzimiskes, promising to maintain the previous agreement and provide the empire with military support if necessary.
During severe military uprisings and fermentation in Byzantium between 986-989. military assistance was provided to her by the Kiev prince Vladimir, who also captured the city of Chersonesos. Constantinople received it back only "for the tsarina's vein", as a ransom for the tsar's sister, married to Vladimir. In turn, Vladimir became a Christian.
Soon after that, the ties between Byzantium and Rus were somewhat weakened. Both the one and the other side are distracted by more pressing tasks: the struggle "against the steppe" in Russia, the struggle against the Arabs and the West in Byzantium.
Russia has developed into a strong, independent state with its own traditions and culture. Relations with Byzantium, Scandinavia, Bulgaria made it from the first steps a power with world connections.
BYZANTINE CULTURE AND ITS SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE SLAVS
The outstanding role that Byzantium played in the general culture of the Middle Ages is unanimously recognized by both Latin and Greek medieval writers, Syrian and Armenian historians, Arab and Persian geographers. The Annals, which were compiled by the tangerines of the "Heavenly Empire", are aware of the great power of the far West for them. A high level of material culture and extensive trade ties were the most important reasons for its power.
Alexandria in Egypt, Antioch in Syria, Edessa on the Euphrates, Mayferkat and Dvin in Armenia, many cities of Asia Minor, Chersonesos in Tavrika, Solun on the Balkan Peninsula were strongholds of the regions, were at the crossroads of trade and strategic roads. But all the roads led to the second Rome - Constantinople, the world capital. Constantinople, the political, administrative, commercial and cultural center of the empire, was a huge market. Goods from the most distant world markets flocked here. From China and Central Asia, raw silk was brought, which passed from the hands of the Sogdian merchants to the Persians and Syrians, who delivered it to the coastal cities, and from there to the capital. Russian and Scandinavian boats delivered wax, furs, honey. From Iran and Arabia, raisins, apricots, almonds, dates, wine, Syrian and Saracenic fabrics were delivered by camels in the harbor of the Syrian coast,carpets and readymade garments. From here, large and small ships transported goods to the Bosphorus. From Egypt came grain, and from the depths of Africa - golden sand and ivory. The capital eagerly devoured huge quantities of fresh and salted fish, which were brought from all over the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions. It was the food of the poorest people in the cities. Cattle were brought to Nicomedia from Asia Minor. Herds of horses grazed in Thrace, from where they were driven to the outskirts of the capital. Olive oil came from Asia Minor, Hellas, Peloponnese. Cattle were brought to Nicomedia from Asia Minor. Herds of horses grazed in Thrace, from where they were driven to the outskirts of the capital. Olive oil came from Asia Minor, Hellas, Peloponnese. Cattle were brought to Nicomedia from Asia Minor. Herds of horses grazed in Thrace, from where they were driven to the outskirts of the capital. Olive oil came from Asia Minor, Hellas, Peloponnese.
Byzantium was also the focus of medieval education. Greek culture in language connected it with the Hellenic tradition, with unsurpassed examples of the Homeric epic, prose of Thucydides and Xenophon, philosophical dialogues of Plato, comedies of Aristophanes and the tragedies of Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides. The Athenian Academy, where "pagan philosophy" flourished, existed until the middle of the 6th century. The higher schools in Alexandria, Antioch and Constantinople, in addition to a cycle of clerical subjects, had medical and law faculties. A number of legislative acts provided teachers and doctors with a salary from the treasury, exempted them from all duties in order to provide them with "the necessary freedom to practice spiders." University of Constantinople from the 5th century numbered 31 professors who taught students of literature, oratory, philosophy and legal sciences. For this, the professors received support from the state.
This made it possible to preserve education in Byzantium, which in turn contributed to the further development of law and legislation, the preservation of medical and agricultural knowledge, as evidenced by the relevant treatises. The Byzantine chronicle and historiographic tradition through Procopius and Theophylact Simokatta is connected with ancient Greek samples, through the chronography of Theophanes, and especially John Malala, it draws new strength from the living folk language.
Both the material culture of Byzantium and the fruits of its education became the property of other peoples. From Byzantium, the Slavs received the alphabet and the first translations from Greek into their native language. The Slavic and Russian chronicles trace their origins, chronology, and tradition to Byzantine chronography, in particular from George Amartol, who was translated early in Bulgaria. This is typical for other literary works (poems, hagiographies), which were translated and perceived in order to give rise to new, original samples later. But Byzantium, with its civilization, carried the poison of treachery, humiliation, violence that flourished in Pei.
With the adoption of Christianity, with the emergence of Slavic writing and the flourishing on the basis of this wonderful culture, the Slavic peoples quickly entered the number of culturally advanced peoples of the medieval world. The assimilation of Byzantine samples did not take place mechanically, but was creatively reworked, took on new, original organic forms, so much of the spiritual heritage of Byzantium continued to live in the culture of Muscovite Rus.
N. Pigulevskaya
