Although the United States and Canada are now close allies, their relationship has not always been peaceful. The southern neighbors tried to conquer Canada twice, and the first time was in 1775, during the Revolutionary War. Then the Continental Army invaded Quebec in order to get support from the local French-speaking population in the battle with the British, but the British managed to stop the invasion in December. For the second time, the United States posed for Canada during the War of 1812, in an attempt to take Canadian territory from the British. This invasion was also stopped, and in retaliation, Canadian soldiers even burned down the White House.
We will learn more about this now …
So, we are talking about the war of 1812! No, not the Patriotic War, which ended with the capture of Paris, but about a very strange war that came as a surprise even to the belligerents. However, the United States, which unleashed it, considers this episode of its history not only a source of national pride, but also the "Second War of Independence", which no one thought to encroach on. It is to this war that the United States owes the birth of the main state symbols and the host of national heroes. And this, in spite of Washington taken by the British and the burnt down Capitol. Is this not an analogy with flaming Moscow? However, the scale of national disasters is far from the same. The Indians suffered the most. Clashes with them continued both before the war and after it, until the "radical solution" of the problem - the resettlement of Indians on the reservation in accordance with the Law of 1867.
What was the reason for this war?
Formally, the problems caused by the desire of England and France, permanently at war, to subjugate American trade. The "Mistress of the Seas" established a tough blockade to cut off supplies to Napoleon's armies. And France, defending the "fortress of Europe", responded with a counter-blockade, banning trade with England. The first US attempt to call the warring parties to order was the "Embargo Act" of 1807, which turned into a misfortune for its own merchants. The widely violated principle of freedom of navigation, which has recently entered the world practice, made Congressmen think about war. It remained to make a choice - with whom exactly? Objectively, there were more reasons for the war with Britain, it captured about 1000 American ships, while the French captured only 500. But the final decision was traditionally based on practical calculation.
What could be taken from the French, practically expelled from the continent? They lost Canada back in 1763, and Napoleon's decision to sell Louisiana in 1803 allowed the United States to practically double its territory. But the possessions of the sworn enemy - Britain were very close. Moreover, the hands of the former metropolis remained tightly bound by the struggle with Napoleon. The enacted fantasy of the congressmen awakened a remarkable appetite, which could only be satisfied by the "development" of territories, later widely known as "zones of vital interests." Otherwise, how could a second-rate power be turned into a powerful state?
Promotional video:
Look to the North, the "hawks" said, there are only a miserable handful of Canadians, hardly worthy of respect because they are "loyalists" (50,000 volunteers who migrated from the United States in 1775-1783 to increase the proportion of the English-speaking population in the former French possessions), and the rest are French. These lands are so similar to our lands, so we just need both Quebec and the Great Lakes. From the West, we are constantly threatened by Indians, supported by the British and their allies - the Spaniards. It's the same in the South. Trade must be protected, even if Florida is taken from the Spaniards to do so. How long can we endure the Spanish threat looming over the region? Isn't it worth taking care of the fate of the Mexican neighbors groaning at the Spanish yoke? The Mexicans didn't have long to waitwhen a caring neighbor takes away their "surplus" territory - Texas, California and New Mexico!
Soon, these sentiments will acquire a philosophical basis in the form of the "Monroe Doctrine", but for now it turned out that it was the war with England that promised the greatest dividends, simultaneously justifying the war against the Indians and the aggression against the Spaniards. The first steps of the young nation proved that it did not lack decisive people with an uninhibited imagination. The enthusiasm of the "hawks" of Congress was such that Senator Henry Clay left his post, only to become Speaker of the House of Representatives and more effectively push for war …
While America was deciding who to fight with, Napoleon made his choice. On June 12, 1812, the French army crossed the Niemen, starting an ill-fated march deep into Russia, which ended in deserted and burnt-out Moscow. Ahead was a murderous retreat at the height of winter under the blows of the Russian army and partisans. However, before Waterloo remained three years, when the English society was shocked by the news - June 18, 1812, the United States declared war on Great Britain. It is noteworthy that two days before that, England lifted the blockade of the United States, and immediately a ship with good news for the Americans set out across the Atlantic, towards which another fled - with the act of declaring war …
The US army was not ready for war. The newly minted aggressor had 6,700 poorly trained and poorly guided soldiers. A detachment of many thousands of state territorial militias with dubious fighting qualities was a weak help. The naval forces consisted of about 20 ships, of which only six frigates could be considered large. Canada became the main strategic target.
The Anglo-American War began with the US attack on British Canada. The Americans hoped to quietly capture this English colony in the New World and become the dominant power in North America. The British, associated with the war with Napoleon, for the time being took a purely defensive position, but everything changed when on April 7, 1814, the Emperor of France signed his abdication and went down the steps of Fontainebleau to the cry of his loyal marshals.
Immediately, a major transfer of British troops to America began. A new commander, Vice Admiral Alexander Forrester Inglis Cochrane, was put in charge of the British fleet in the region. He came from a famous Scottish family of Earls of Dandonalds and, like all Scots, was hot-tempered, arrogant and intolerant of other people's opinions. Cochrane was a hawk, an aggressive commander, and he was dismissive and arrogant towards the Americans.
From a letter from Cochrane to Lord Melville, dated March 25, 1814:
For its conquest, three "shock" groups were created. The "western" emerged from Fort Detroit, the "central" crossed Niagara, and the "eastern" advanced along the shores of Lake Champlain to Montreal. To protect the Canadian provinces, the British kept only 7,000 regular soldiers under arms. This was enough for a start. In 1814, when Napoleon seemed to be done away with, the British were able to pay due attention to the situation in America by sending seasoned veterans there.
The campaign to conquer Canada has failed. All three attempts. Sometimes the Americans even managed to seize important positions on the Canadian side, for a short time. And the territorial militia at first flatly refused to attack, claiming that it was their duty to guard the state border, and not cross it. Nevertheless, the Canadian city of York (future Toronto) was burned to the ground in April 1813, which simply forced the British to burn Buffalo first, and then pay attention to the American capital.
The British disembarked from ships in the city of Benedict, 40 miles from Washington, immediately launching an attack. President Madison has called to arms for 95,000 police officers. There were only 7000. The country with almost 8 million population had substantial resources, but its army often melted before our eyes … On August 24, 1814, a four thousandth British detachment under the command of General Ross occupied the US capital, the government fled to Virginia. Without wasting time, the British burned down all government buildings, including the White House and the Capitol, except … the patent office.
The next day, the capital shuddered from the storm that completed the defeat, and the British set out to storm Baltimore, the fourth largest city in the United States. However, the course of the artillery duel contributed to the decision of the British to end the offensive against the numerically superior and well-entrenched American army. The United States celebrated the first success as a major victory. Meanwhile, 10,000 British were advancing on New York along the coast of Champlain, accompanied by a small flotilla. The commander believed that it is quite possible to do without the help of sailors, but life has once again confirmed that self-confidence is inappropriate in war.
In September 1814, near Platsburgh, the British ships were destroyed by the American flotilla. Fearing that their communications would be cut, the British returned to Canada. Weakly defended New York survived, as often happened in this war, only thanks to the sailors. And if the achievements of the Americans on land were doubtful, then in the sea, where single clashes prevailed, successes were obvious. The combat experience of the future ocean-going fleet was forged in the vastness of the Great Lakes. What is just the battle of the legendary Captain Oliver Perry in Put-in Bay on Lake Erie in September 1813?
And the frigate "Constitution" has become one of the national symbols of the United States. He not only remains in the combat composition of the fleet, but also participates in naval parades. The silhouette of the ship is firmly imprinted on the people's memory, along with stories of battles, guns and heroism. It is curious that its equipment was made in Kronstadt, which most Americans do not even know about.
Capitulation of Washington.
On the evening of August 24, the first British companies appeared at the Capitol Hill. Ross sent white-flag parliamentarians to the city to negotiate the terms of surrender, but at the intersection of Maryland Avenue and Constitution Avenue, the British were shot at point-blank by American police. After that, all sentiment was thrown back, the marines and infantry rushed into the city and set it on fire.
While British troops arrived from the east in slender columns, in the south of the city, its inhabitants and the country's leadership left in panic. Before fleeing, officials plundered the treasury of the National Bank, as well as part of the bonds of the Federal Treasury. Only Dolly Madison, the president's wife, was able to bring out some of the important documents and values.
On the morning of the 25th, Cockburn's ships approached the dock on the Potomac. The sailors who had disembarked on the Arlington Bridge connected with their fellow infantrymen at Capitol Hill and began to decide what to do next. The officers took a tour of the still unfinished White House. In the hall of the House of Representatives, Cockburn sat down in the Speaker's chair, closed his eyes a little, and then asked a simple question: "Well, shall we burn this American democracy shelter to hell?", To which the British Marines shouted with joy "Yes, sir!" ("Shall this harbor of Yankee democracy be burned?" The British Marines with him yelled "Aye!").
Burnt out White House.
At 10:30 p.m. on August 25, amid the burning of the Capitol and the Treasury building in a drizzling rain, Infantry and Marines paraded. They also burned the shipyards on the Potomac along with the ships (the 44-gun super-frigate Columbia and the 16-gun brig Argus were just being completed there, and the 28-gun Boston and 36-gun New -York ). However, the Americans claim that they burned the shipyards and ships themselves, without waiting for their capture by the British. On the morning of the 26th, a raid was made on Alexandria (Virginia), where the British plundered and burned the richest supplies of provisions and ammunition. On the same day, the soldiers and sailors embarked on ships and sailed to the mouth of the Potomac.
The defeat at Bladensburg and the burning of Washington were called "the greatest disgrace to the American army" and "the most humiliating episode in all American history." The Yankee troops and militia simply fled and surrendered the capital without a fight. In history there were examples of the surrender of their capitals, including in the described time. During the Patriotic War of 1812, Kutuzov surrendered Moscow, which was considered the second capital of Russia, and in 1814 the French surrendered Paris. But only the Americans could so toothlessly and so absurdly withdraw themselves from the battle for their capital. Neither Fer-Champenoise, let alone Borodino, can be compared with Bladensberg. The attack on Washington was swift, powerful, and humiliating. The burning walls of the White House were a worthy revenge for the defeat of the British at the initial stage of the war. The cost estimate for the losses of the Americans was $ 1,500,000 in prices at the time.
The year 1814, which almost turned out to be a defeat for the Americans, ended with the Hartford Congress, which called into question the integrity of the country. A group of "federalists", trying to maintain the influence of the northeastern states, initiated discussions on the possibility of secession from the Union. All this was a confirmation of the anxiety that had settled in the consciousness of society. In Ghent (Belgium), negotiations began with England, which ended on December 24, 1814 with the signing of a peace treaty. And two weeks later, the British were unexpectedly defeated at New Orleans. However, it was decided not to resume the war. The parties were content with the pre-war status quo.
The battle of New Orleans could have been lost by the Americans too. The contractor disrupted the supply of guns and ammunition, as rumored to have been bribed by British agents. American patriotism was then conditional and was not considered a major virtue. Seeing that only a few people were armed in the arriving militia detachment, the commander, General Andrew Jackson, broke out in curses, declaring that he had never seen a Kentucky resident without a deck of cards, a bottle of whiskey, and a rifle. "Looks like the poor boys deliberately left the family weapons at home and went to Louisiana to get them in battle!" - the general sneered, sending the policemen in search of weapons. The guys coped with the task. By requisitioning all the bales of cotton for export, Jackson ensured not only skyrocketing prices but also shrapnel and bullet protection in the trenches. Besides,In addition to the militias, planters, free blacks and French-speaking Creoles that flocked from everywhere, the general put even gangsters and pirates under arms. Experience he was not to take, shortly before that Jackson acquired the glory of the winner of the Indians. By shooting at least three times the enemy outnumbered with cannons, he contributed a lot to the solution of the issue of "national minorities" in Georgia.
The British commander, General Pakenham, leisurely preparing for battle, clearly underestimated the enemy. Leading the troops on the attack, he blindly followed a linear tactic that soon allowed his brother-in-law, the Duke of Wellington, to win the battle of Waterloo. The Americans, alien to the theory, as the British approached, shot them without leaving the trenches. The commander and about a thousand of his soldiers were killed, and there were twice as many wounded. The losses of the Americans were 8 killed and 13 wounded.
Immediate counterattack, rapid pursuit and complete destruction of the enemy were not provided for by the American military doctrine of that time, so in the late afternoon the soldiers dispersed and got pretty drunk. The phrase "Orleans is saved and the world is concluded !!" made the headlines in many newspapers, causing a bout of collective amnesia. Events were deliberately shifted within the chronology. Any American schoolboy from now on believed that the world was conquered by the victory at New Orleans, without thinking about cause-and-effect relationships and taking this episode as another confirmation of the heroic essence of his nation.
However, the importance of the battle should not be overestimated. The peace treaty was signed, and England, tired of three years of fussing with the former colony, restrainedly swallowed the pill. And Jackson did not have to leave the general's post and return to Tennessee to drive careless slaves on the plantations or pursue a career as a lawyer. His career took off, in 1829 he became the 7th President of the United States, and his services to the nation were immortalized by a portrait on a 20-dollar bill. The Treaty of Ghent did not solve any of the problems that "entailed" the war. The parties refrained from territorial claims and contributions. Commissions were created to discuss the upcoming problems, prisoners of war were exchanged, and it all ended. However, article 9 of the Treaty is worthy of mention, in which the US government declared its desire to “end the enmity with the Indians and return to them all possessions,wartime rights and privileges”. Since neither side considered itself a loser, the appearance of this article looks like a hypocritical demonstration of the victor's “generosity” towards those who really lost in this war - the Indians, especially since everyone knows the ending.
In any case, the lack of rational justification and visible effect deprives the title "Second War of Independence" of any meaning. Psychologically, it was more like the last stage of the separation of adult children from their parents. For France, which may well have become the enemy, this made no historical sense to most Americans.
The demarcation did not matter much for the New England "federalists" who had already recovered from the "childhood diseases of the revolution." The connection with the former metropolis, sealed by hatred of Bonaparte, was reflected in education, mutual visits, trade unions and even fashion trends. On the other hand, the inhabitants of the border areas, most often Irish and Scots, traditionally remained hostile towards the British. They were less well equipped and heavily influenced by religious cults, remaining more emotionally limited and less controlled. Only another challenge to the power of England - the "second war of independence", was able to cure them of their "complexes". Irish Catholics and some Protestants found refuge in America after the collapse of the 1798 uprising. While active Anglophobes, they often deserved to be accused ofthat they were not sufficiently Americanized, having transferred the eternal struggle of the old homeland to the United States. However, their grievances are understandable. It's no joke, the population of today's Ireland is about 9 million, and through the efforts of the British, more than 50 million of their compatriots are scattered around the world. In the United States alone, 45 million people consider themselves Irish.
The significance of this war for Americans is enduring. She became the basis of their myth-making. The origin of the US national anthem, for example, owes its appearance to the English bombing of Fort McHenry on the outskirts of Baltimore in 1813. The patriotic impulse inspired Francis Kay to poetry, then set to the tune of an old English tavern song. The Star-Spangled Banner became a full-fledged hymn after it was approved by Congress twenty years later.
During the war, not only the main motto that flaunts on American banknotes - In God We Trust ("In God we believe"), appeared, but also Uncle Sam - a cartoon image of the United States, at first a short fat man in a hat, and later a kasche-like uncle, in clothes colors of the national flag. It came from the name of a certain Sam Wilson, who supplied the United States Army with meat with the stamp "US". According to legend, when the US Army inspector asked what these initials mean, the answer was “Uncle Sam”.