The name of the Roman amphitheater of the Colosseum comes from the huge statue of Nero - "Colossus", which once stood nearby. The facade of the building was faced with marble and was decorated with sculptural images of the gods. Built between 70 and 82 AD BC, the official name is the Flavian Amphitheater. (The word Colosseum - Collosseum - comes from the Latin word colosseus - colossal, huge.)
In the representations of many people, gladiator fights were always carried out in arenas specially built for this purpose in front of the eyes of a roaring crowd of thousands. In fact, the first gladiatorial fights were staged either near the grave of the deceased, in whose honor a Munus (funeral ceremony) was arranged, or on the territory of his land. There were practically no spectators, except for the family members of the deceased and domestic servants.
Later, when gladiator fights turned into essentially a theatrical performance and began to gather large crowds of people, they began to be held in city squares or, as in Rome, at the Forum. Here the organizer installed temporary wooden seats for the convenience of the audience. The construction of permanent structures in which it was possible to hold such events began only in the 1st century BC. e. And it was at this time that these performances became frequent to justify the enormous costs that were associated with the construction of permanent arenas.
An ancient structure that was used for gladiator fights and which has survived quite well to this day is the Amphitheater in the city of Pompeii. This structure was erected in 80 BC. e. it could hold about 20 thousand people. We know from written sources that the first amphitheaters were built, at least in part, from wood, so they have not survived. The surviving amphitheater is built entirely of stone, but some of the architectural elements were standard for all such structures in the territory of the Roman Empire.
A characteristic feature of all amphitheaters is its shape: an elliptical oval. Although, most likely, a circle would have been a more successful form of the amphitheater, which would have made it possible for all spectators to see what was happening in the arena equally well, but this could have prevented the achievement of the main goal of the games of that time, namely, to increase the prestige and fame of the editor or organizer of the games., and, accordingly, his chances of winning the election.
The oval shape made it possible to install a special platform on which the organizer of the games sat. It was located in the very center of the shady north side of the amphitheater. From this place, the organizer could see everything that was happening in the arena and stands. But more importantly, he himself was clearly visible to all the people. The platform on which he sat was called the Editoris Tribunal. The arena was covered with sand, which could quickly absorb blood and enable the gladiators to stand firmly on their feet. (The word "arena" itself comes from the Latin word for "sand").
The second design element of the amphitheater, which also unites all amphitheaters, was the location of two gates through which gladiators entered the arena. The gate was on either side of the ellipse. One gate was called Porta Libitinaria, or the Gate of Libitina, named after Libitina, the goddess of burial. Through these gates, the dead - both people and animals - were carried out of the arena for subsequent burial.
The third characteristic feature of all amphitheaters was the arrangement of the stands. The seats were made of stone and arranged in horizontal rows around the arena. The lowest places were above the sand level and separated from it by a perpendicular wall of polished stone. This was a necessary security measure, as the wall protected spectators from attacks by distraught people or animals. At times, for added security, a net was pulled over the wall. Long horizontal rows of seats were torn apart by vertical spans of steps, so that all sectors of the seating were wedge-shaped. At the top of the stairs were doors through which spectators entered and exited the amphitheater.
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Colosseum - surviving centuries
In Rome, the first permanent amphitheater was built in 29 BC. BC, but this half-wooden, half-stone structure was destroyed by a fire in 64 AD. e. Eight years later, another emperor of Rome, Vespasian, began the construction of a new amphitheater. Its architectural structure was destined to become the largest in the entire territory of the Roman Empire: it was the Colosseum.
Like everything related to spectacles and free entertainment in Rome, the construction of the Colosseum was intended to bribe voters and win power. The new emperor, Titus Flavius Vespasian, was a military officer who made a career in the army. Vespasian and his family came from the country of the Sabines. The Flavias had more to do with provincial landowners than with noble aristocrats.
When the emperor Nero committed suicide, Galba seized power, who less than a year later was killed by praetorians led by one of Nero's supporters, who became the later emperor Otho. After 4 months, Otho faced rebellious legions near the border of the Rhine, who proclaimed their commander Vitellius emperor. Otho lost a battle near Cremona and committed suicide. So, less than a year later, Vitellius became the third Roman emperor.
After 4 months, the armies located in the east and along the Danub river declared Vespasian the new emperor and advanced to Rome. Vespasian's older brother, who was at that time in Rome, decided to take refuge in the ancient temple of Jupiter on the Capitol Hill. Vitellius ordered to burn the sacred temple to the ground. In addition to the temple, most of the buildings on the Capitol were also destroyed. In December 69 A. D. e. Vespasian's troops arrived in Rome, broke into the city and killed Vitellius.
Vespasian faced a difficult task - the need for restoration in Rome, after 18 months of chaos and bloodshed, law and order. He had to not only restore state power, but also practically rebuild Rome. He wanted to combine both tasks and began a global reconstruction program.
And in the end, Vespasian decided to focus his efforts on appeasing the common people. The new emperor was well aware that he could retain power in his hands only if he could win the respect and favor of the voters. Following the example of Augustus, Vespasian usurped the right to distribute public offices and privileges, because of which his power was strengthened and subsequently passed into the hands of his sons: Titus and Domitian. And as you know, it was possible to bring the greatest pleasure to the people only with the help of one and only means: games.
After the fire of 64 AD. e. Rome was left without an amphitheater. Vespasian brought together the best masons and builders to design and build the greatest stadium equipped with the latest technology. It was a blatant bribery of the lower ranks of Roman society by Vespasian, and it worked brilliantly. Vespasian not only ruled successfully until 79 AD. e., but was also able to transfer power to his sons: first to the eldest son Titus, and after the youngest to Domitian.
Vespasian competently approached the choice of a place for the construction of the amphitheater. The construction began near Forum Romanum, between the Palatine and Esqueline hills. On the one hand, the Amphitheater was located on the edge of a commercial and religious center, on the other, it was not far from densely populated residential areas. However, the most important, most likely, was that it was located on the site of the Garden of Pleasures, created by Nero for his palace, built on the site of the destroyed by fire 64 AD. e. houses. And again Vespasian made it clear that he did not want to have anything to do with Nero. What Nero once took and appropriated for himself, Vespasian returned to the people.
Construction began in 74 AD. e. and continued for many years. The project included not only the construction of the Amphitheater itself, but also the arrangement of the adjacent territories. The ground near the erected building was leveled and paved with slabs of solidified lava. And only one creation from the Garden of Nero's delights has survived - a huge statue of himself, made of gilded bronze.
The 36 m 50 cm high statue was too huge to be easily demolished. Vespasian got out of the situation: removing the inscription from the pedestal, saying that it was the emperor Nero, added metal pointed peaks to the head, a kind of sunbeams, and dedicated the statue to the sun god.
In the center of this imposing space, the great Flavian Amphitheater was slowly being erected. The modern name - Colosseum - was given to the Amphitheater only several centuries after the last games were held there. The area of the building was truly huge, much larger than that of any of the existing amphitheaters - 189 m by 155 m. The height of the Amphitheater was also considerable - 48 m. It seemed that the building consisted of four tiers, although in fact there were 5 of them.
The first tier was an arcade of eighty arches, each of which served as a numbered entrance to the auditorium, separated by powerful Doric columns. The second tier also consisted of eighty arches, only here the arches served as frames for graceful statues, and the columns were made in a more sophisticated Ionic style. The arches on the third tier were somewhat smaller, and the columns and statues were executed in an elegant Corinthian style. Above the third tier was a solid wall, divided by Corinthian pilasters and cut through by square windows. The top of the façade was faced with a row of bronze shields and topped with stone pillars.
This is at least how the facade of the amphitheater looked in 80 AD. BC when Titus finished its construction. In honor of the opening, the emperor arranged a grandiose series of games that continued without interruption for 100 days. And again this step of the emperor had a political motive, since Titus, who had recently come to power, wanted to enlist the support of the people. Over the many years of its existence, the Flavian Amphitheater has undergone alterations and improvements, especially after 217 AD. e., when lightning hit the building and it took 12 years to liquidate the destruction.
Inside the Colosseum, the builders applied a number of innovations. First, they set up a second editorial tribunal opposite the first tribune. This tribune, called pulvinar, was something like a royal box for the emperor and his guests. It was located directly opposite the seats occupied by the organizer of the games. Often the emperor himself was the organizer of the games, who wanted to glorify a successful commander or a close relative. In such cases, the emperor occupied the pulvinar, and the person in whose honor the games were arranged, the editoris tribunal.
At first, the seats in the Colosseum were allocated individually for each specific event or series of games. The emperor himself decided who would receive the reserved seats and who would go to stand in a long line to take the vacant ones. There is no doubt that the best seats were allocated according to the principle “you are for me, I am for you,” that is, on the basis of the client-patron relationship system that dominates Roman society and government. Later, the distribution of seats became more formalized. Seats near the arena were reserved for senators, their male relatives and noble horsemen, however, a certain number of seats were also reserved for the vestals.
Behind the seats that were reserved for the senators were seats for Roman citizens who could not boast of great wealth or aristocratic background. This section was occupied by the majority of the audience. Seats were numbered and carefully allocated, although how this was done remains a mystery. The arches of the first tier, which served as entrances, were numbered, as were the rows of spectators, as evidenced by the number tokens found in Rome. Presumably, clay numbers were handed out to the townspeople on the eve of the performance.
Behind and above the seats were covered galleries, from where women, foreigners and slaves stood to watch the events in the arena. Being quite far from the scene, they could perfectly see everything that was happening in the arena, and clearly heard every breath, scream or roar thanks to the truly unique acoustics of the Roman Colosseum.
The Colosseum's capacity is controversial. According to the testimony of ancient chroniclers, in the days of especially spectacular performances in the Roman Colosseum, more than 70,000 people were packed. Modern calculations based on the size of the Colosseum and comparative analyzes with modern football stadiums reduce this figure to a more modest 45,000. Maybe the Romans were not very worried about comfort and squeezed into any free space.
When erecting such a massive structure, the Roman builders used all the architectural techniques that were known to them. The lower tier of the Roman Colosseum was formed from massive columns and arches made of travertine, white limestone from Tivoli. Only he was able to withstand such an impressive weight of the building, but at the same time it was distinguished by high decorative characteristics. The middle tiers were made of concrete, a relatively new building material in those days. It was lighter and could be molded into shapes, which made it possible to create a complex system of passages through which the audience could get to their places.
The upper tiers of the amphitheater were made of brick and volcanic rock. These building materials were quite lightweight yet strong enough to withstand the crowds of people gathering on the upper tiers. To give the building a majestic look, the façade was completely clad in travertine.
At the very top, above the seating and standing areas of the stadium, there was a row of stone pillars and wooden poles that supported the ingenious creation of the masters - the roof of the Colosseum. The roof, or velarium, was a giant awning made of canvas or leather, supported by ropes and wooden poles. How the velarium functioned is not known exactly.
It was operated by crews of sailors, recruited specifically for this purpose from the fleet, who, apparently, knew how to handle sails, the principle of which was also based on a system of ropes and canvas. Probably, the awning was pulled over most of the amphitheater, when the heat came. If it got too hot, water was sprayed on the audience. The unfortunate participants in the performances certainly did not have this kind of privilege.
The arena itself has undergone numerous modifications during the existence of the Roman Colosseum. In the beginning, it was solid ground covered with sand. In the days when this place was occupied by the gardens of Nero, there was an artificial lake. Vespasian preserved the pipeline through which the lake was filled and drained. In the early years of the Colosseum, the arena was sometimes filled with water, both for performances with dolphins, crocodiles, seals or other aquatic animals, and for naval battles between small warships, under the control of only a few rowers.
In the II century A. D. e. the plumbing system was removed from under the arena and replaced with a whole maze of underground passages and rooms in which complex mechanisms were hidden: lifts, secret hatches and manholes, thanks to which gladiators or wild animals could suddenly appear in the arena. Some sections of the arena were mobile. So, in the midst of the performance, to the wild delight of the crowd, a whole forest of trees could grow out of the ground or a tower could appear.
It is these dungeons that make it possible to understand that the Roman Colosseum and similar amphitheaters were only the visible tip of a huge iceberg - an entire industry at the service of the bloody entertainment of Rome.
M. Rupert