The Jewish shtetls, so vividly described by Sholem Aleichem and Isaac Babel, have long been a legend. In the middle of the twentieth century, the Holocaust took into oblivion a whole world with its own customs, history, folklore and its own language - the real Ukrainian Atlantis. The words “pasok”, “neboga”, “praska”, “shahray”, “glad” and the expression “shlyak bi you trafiv” remained from the disappeared civilization - all these are borrowings from Yiddish. And also - ancient cemeteries with mossy matzevah steles that have grown into the ground.
Cemeteries are unique historical monuments. They surprise both with their antiquity (sometimes there are tombstones of the 16th century), and the finest stone carvings.
A tourist who first came to an ancient kirkut usually has two questions: how did they manage to cut something like that, and what does it all mean. Even most modern Jews have no idea what this "zoo" and other mysterious symbols are for.
As "laboratory material" we use gravestones (in Hebrew "matzeva", plural - "matzevot") of the cemetery in Satanov, Khmelnytsky region. - one of the most interesting and ancient not only in Ukraine, but also in Eastern Europe as a whole. There are matzevahs of the 16th century, but the bulk of the gravestones date from the beginning of the 18th century to the turn of the 18th-19th centuries. And we will take some examples from other parts of Podillya - Gorodok and Murovannyh Kurilovtsy.
The design of the traditional Jewish tombstone-matzeva was formed by the beginning of the 17th century. It is a flat slab shaped like a portal. The portal has a double meaning: it is the gateway to the Garden of Eden, and a reminder of the destroyed Temple. The portal itself contains an epitaph, and the upper part of the symbolic gate is in most cases decorated with various images. Here we recall that the Jewish tradition forbade depicting people, therefore information about the deceased was often encrypted with a set of symbols. The bas-reliefs also displayed ideas about the afterlife and served as a kind of amulets.
a lion
Lions are the most common of the images. This is quite understandable: the lion is the symbol of Judah and Judaism; he also adorns the coat of arms of Jerusalem. Basically, lions are depicted in pairs, as guards or as holders of different crowns.
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If there is only one lion, and even lies at the heart of the plot, it can be said with 99% certainty that a man named Ari (Ariel) or Leib is buried here. Both of these names, one in Hebrew, the other in Yiddish, are translated as "lion." It is generally common for Jews to decorate gravestones with images of animals corresponding to the name of the deceased.
On most old matzos, the lion does not look much like a lion. Which is quite understandable: few of the carvers have seen this animal, not only in life, but at least in a decent drawing. Depicting the king of beasts, the carvers used the texts of rabbinic books, where the lion was described as a huge dog with a mane, a tail with a tassel and an almost human face. Hence the lions appeared, more like disheveled dogs. Stunning lions with human faces and sadly drooping Cossack mustaches are common.
Unicorn
The lion-unicorn fight is a popular stone plot. The expectation of the coming of the Messiah, the king-messiah, is encrypted here. After the death of the legendary king Solomon (about 928 BC), the Jewish state split into northern and southern parts. The tribes of Yehuda and Benjamin ended up in southern Judea, and the remaining ten tribes made up the population of the northern kingdom of Israel. The northerners and southerners were at enmity for a long time and waged bloody internecine wars, until in 721 BC. Assyrian king Sargon II did not subdue the northerners weakened by civil strife and did not drive all its inhabitants into slavery. Since then, these ten tribes of Israel are considered "lost."
The fight between the lion (the personification of Judea) and the unicorn (the personification of Israel) reminds of the old war between the North and the South and hints about the future arrival of the Messiah, after which this confrontation will end, 10 lost tribes will be found, and the Jewish people will unite again.
Often there are just unicorns, mostly peacefully resting. Sleeping unicorns were traditionally depicted on the graves of girls - here they symbolize the purity and innocence of the deceased.
Deer
If a handsome horned man is the central figure of the bas-relief, you can safely judge that in front of you is the grave of a man named Hirsh-Tzvi (that is, the Deer). Also, these animals were often depicted on the tombstones of people named Naftali - that was the name of the founder of one of the tribes of Israel, whose symbol is a deer. In Jewish tradition, this animal also symbolizes speed in fulfilling the commandments of the Torah. In particular, the Talmudic treatise "Pirkei Avot" says: "Be quick as a deer in serving the Almighty." In this case, the image of a deer also symbolizes the righteousness of the deceased. There is also a doe - it was often depicted on the graves of girls.
Hare
The bobtail population is not much inferior to the population of stone lions and deer. At first glance, this is surprising, because in Judaism the hare is an absolutely non-kosher animal. But in this case, we are not talking about hare stew, but about symbolism: the legendary hare cowardice is played out. True, hares symbolize not just fear, but the Fear of God and awe before Heaven, indicating the fear of God of the deceased.
Long-eared are found both by themselves and in various compositions. The most common is a hare in the claws of an eagle. The eagle symbolizes God, the hare symbolizes a God-fearing man, all together - a God-fearing man who has given himself into the hands of the Lord. In addition, the eagle symbolizes the angel of death, taking the soul of the deceased to heaven.
The most curious hare plot is a puzzle of three animals running in a circle. Such tombstones are rare, found only in Satanov and neighboring Gorodok and Smotrych (all - Khmelnytsky region). At first glance, every hare is ordinary here: four legs, a short tail, two long ears. But at the same time, each of the bunnies is completely earless - his ears belong to the neighbors!
This plot is multi-confessional. It originally appeared in the ancient Buddhist cave monastery of Qianfodong around the 6th century. AD Hares racing in a circle in the Buddhist tradition embody infinity, the run of time and the reincarnation of the soul. In addition, the triangle formed by the ears symbolizes the trinity of Heaven, Earth and Man. Later, this image migrated to Islamic sacred art, then to Christian art, where this symbol became the embodiment of the Holy Trinity. For example, in the Gothic cathedral of the German Paderborn, three oblique decorated one of the windows - the "window of three birds with one stone" has become an informal symbol of this city. In Judaism, hares also symbolize three Forefathers - Abraham, Isaac and Jacob.
Squirrel
Squirrels gnawing nuts are also popular among small animals. They symbolize that the deceased "gnawed" the wisdom of the Torah all his life in order to pull out its innermost secrets.
Bear
Like other animals, bears are often depicted on the graves of namesakes - people named Dov-Ber (Bear). Bear stories also have a meaning similar to the battle of a lion and a unicorn - waiting for the arrival of the Messiah. There are images of bears with disconnected shoots in their paws: here the branches symbolize the 12 tribes of Israel, which will unite together with the coming of the Messiah. However, in some cases, the bear simply symbolizes the soul of the deceased in the Garden of Eden, breathing in the scent of heavenly flowers (we recall, it was forbidden to portray people).
A very curious plot with two bears carrying a huge bunch of grapes. This is a symbolic image of the scouts who were sent to the land of Canaan and brought from there a bunch of grapes, so huge that it was carried on a pole by two people.
At first, this story became widespread in Christianity. Here the first bear symbolized the Old Testament and Judaism, the second - Christianity, and the pole with grapes - the crucified Christ, uniting the Old and New Testaments. In the Jewish tradition, the meaning of this plot is somewhat different: as a bunch of grapes became a symbol of the share of the harvest of the Jewish people in the Promised Land, so the deceased can count on his share of the land in Eretz Yisrael after the coming of the Messiah.
Wolf
This predator is often the central figure of the bas-relief. The latter does not mean at all that the deceased was evil and bloodthirsty, just his name was Wolf (Wolf). There are also wolves holding prey in their mouths - birds, fallow deer or other small fry. In this case, they symbolize the angels of death, who tore out the soul of the deceased. A similar plot was depicted on the graves of people who died a violent death.
Fox
As in fairy tales, the fox symbolizes the keen mind of the deceased. And also - a soul among the heavenly booths. In most cases, all small animals - fallow deer, hares, foxes, deer, birds - are depicted with buried noses (beaks) in symbolic images of paradise booths, as if inhaling the scent of flowers. The explanation is simple: according to Talmudic treatises, the souls of the dead spend their time enjoying the heady aromas of the Garden of Eden. On the matzevo in the photo above from the bear are depicted hares, below - foxes.
Eagle
Tourists are surprised by the two-headed eagles that are strongly associated with Russia. But the Jewish eagle has nothing to do with either Muscovy or the Austrian Empire. Yes, and these birds settled here when both Muscovy and Austria were still far abroad. In this case, all the eagles - both ordinary and double-headed - symbolize God. In the case of "two-headedness", we have a hint of the dualistic essence of the Divine.
Stork
In Hebrew, this bird is called "Hasid" and has one root with "Hasidus" (righteousness). The image of a stork on a tombstone seems to hint at the righteousness of the deceased. Storks are found both by themselves and with a snake in its beak, which symbolizes the victory of good over evil. By the way, snakes are also frequent inhabitants of the stone zoo: they symbolize death.
Birds
Of the small birds, the most common are pigeons and turtle doves, but there are also songbirds. Most often, feathered small fry adorns female tombstones. The symbolism here is clear: a woman is the keeper of the family nest. In addition, birds were depicted on the graves of women who bore the names Feig or Zipporah (bird). But they are also found on men's tombstones. For example, a dove adorns the monuments of people named Jonah (dove).
Hands
The images on the tombstones also clearly indicate the origin of the deceased. On many monuments you can see the image of folded hands. With this gesture, the priests of the Temple used to bless the people. This image means that this is the tomb of a cogen - a descendant of the high priest Aaron. Let us recall that according to the Law, only the descendants of Aaron (brother of Moses) could perform the service in the Temple.
At the cemetery, there is another version of the hands - in the process of ablution, or just hand-washing accessories - a jug, bowl, basin, towel. These are the graves of the Levites: they, like the cohen, were servants of the Temple, but of a slightly lower rank. It was the Levites who carried the Ark of the Covenant during their wilderness wanderings. Their duty also included pouring water onto the hands of the priests during the ritual ablution - which is recorded on the bas-reliefs.
Five-candlestick
Most often (but not always) the five-candlestick adorns women's tombstones. It acts as a symbol of female piety - it is a woman's duty to light candles on Shabbat and holidays.
Star of David
The most recognizable Jewish symbol is the six-pointed Star of David. she is Magen David. On the old part of Satan's cemetery (16th - 18th centuries), it practically does not occur: as a purely Jewish symbol, the star gains popularity only from the second half of the 19th century.
In Satan, only one old tombstone is decorated with Magen David - the grave of Abraham-David Babad. The star is held here by a couple of lions, in the center of it is the date: 5536 (1774 or 1775). This is one of the oldest gravestones in Eastern Europe, decorated with a six-pointed star. Moreover, Magen David is here the central figure of the tombstone, which is generally not typical for the 18th century. The six-pointed star here does not serve as a symbol of Jewishness, as on later gravestones, but as a kind of amulet that protects the soul of the deceased and the burial itself from evil forces.
Soviet symbols
If we talk about amulet stars, then it is worth a little distraction from Satanov. This summer, at the opposite end of Podillya, in the village of Murovny Kurilovtsy (Vinnytsia region), the author discovered traditional Jewish tombstones, which caused a stir among specialists in the field of necropolis. The grave of a certain Sarah bat r. Shmuel (Sarah, the daughter of Rabbi Shmuel), named Khaseleva, who died in 1937, is decorated with a five-pointed communist star! Another "star grave" of the same period was discovered nearby.
And absolutely a sensation in the field of Jewish necropolis - in the same cemetery there is an absolutely traditional matzeva, but decorated with a hammer and sickle! It also belongs to the 1930s. The hammer and sickle monument also belongs to a woman, as evidenced by the inscription "important woman" (the rest of the inscription is hidden by earth and periwinkle). The wording "a woman is important" is the classic beginning of the traditional female epitaph, dating back to ancient times.
Where does such a passion for communist symbols come from? The explanation lies both in the date (1937) and in the geography of the Murovannyi Kurilovites (on the very border with the then Kingdom of Romania). 1937 was the peak of the first state anti-Semitic campaign in the USSR. Under these conditions, it was easy for a local Jew to thunder in the GULAG, or even to be shot as a "Romanian spy." Hence such demonstrative loyalty. In this case, the stars, the hammer and sickle also played the role of amulets - though not so much for the dead as for the living.
Dmitry Polyukhovich