Like any technologically complex space project, the ISS has a long history, the duration of which is comparable to the total lifetime of the station. It all started back in the early 1980s when, after a series of delays, the shuttles finally began flying into space. However, even then, many wondered whether NASA really needed a fleet of space trucks. Indeed, despite all attempts to increase the number of launches and replace disposable missiles with them, it quickly became obvious that the shuttles turned out to be much more expensive and more difficult to operate than originally expected.
In the mid-1970s, NASA developed a plan for the shuttles to dock with the mothballed Skylab station, raise its orbit, and then refit and equip with new modules. After that, a permanent crew of 6 - 7 people would be deployed at the station, and it could function as a kind of base for receiving shuttles. But Skylab went out of orbit even before the first shuttle flight and only such pictures remained from the project.
Therefore, NASA began to work out the idea of building a multi-module orbital station. It allowed to kill two birds with one stone - to load shuttles and create an outpost for future manned missions to Mars and the Moon. One of the early concepts of the early 1980s involved the creation of, as they would say now, a "design" station. Its solar panels were supposed to be arranged in the shape of a triangle, inside which a bundle of five modules was located.
The authors of another concept, code-named "Spider", proposed building a station based on the equipment and technology used to launch the shuttles. As it is not difficult to see, the station should have been built around a converted fuel tank of the shuttle.
The next concept, proposed by engineers from the space center. Johnson, was named Power Tower. He assumed the creation of a station, consisting of two parts (energy and a cluster of modules), interconnected by a long truss. It was assumed that such an arrangement would stabilize the station, which would significantly reduce the need for using thrusters for position corrections. The number of shuttle launches required to assemble the Power Tower was estimated at 8-10.
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In 1984, President Reagan officially announced the creation of a space station with the modest name of Freedom. After that, work on the project went in full swing. Already in the next 1985, specialists from Lockheed and McDonnell-Douglas proposed a new, two-keel station design. In it, a cluster of four modules (two residential and two scientific) was located in the center of the structure. It was believed that such an arrangement would create a more stable environment for space exploration.
Also, the station was supposed to be equipped with two docking ports for satellites, and installations for moving in open space MMU. It was assumed that, in addition to scientific research, the station's crew will be engaged in regular maintenance and repair of space technology, which will dock with the station.
Freedom's permanent crew was supposed to consist of 8 people. The launch of the first module was planned for January 1993. The first permanent crew was to move into the station one year after the start of its assembly. The cost of building the two-keel Freedom was estimated at $ 18 billion, and the required number of shuttle launches was 21.
It should be noted that not all NASA astronauts and engineers were delighted with this design. Many have pointed out that such a design is too complex and inconvenient to maintain, which would expose the crew to unnecessary risk while working in space. Another problem was that the station was not supposed to have a rescue ship in case of any emergency (the shuttles were unable to stay in space for more than a few weeks).
The Challenger crash turned everything upside down. The shuttle fleet was pinned to the ground for several years. NASA has made a number of design changes and dramatically changed all safety standards. The cost, as well as the construction time frame of Freedom, was also reassessed. According to new calculations, more than 30 shuttle launches were already required to assemble the station.
To reduce costs, NASA ditched one of the satellite docking ports and invited ESA, JAXA and CSA to join the project. Europeans and Japanese had to build a laboratory module, Canadians - a manipulator arm. Thus, NASA's contribution was reduced to two modules.
The following 1987, the Freedom design was again radically redesigned. It was decided to abandon the two-track design in favor of a design with one long truss (the so-called Baseline Configuration). The assembly of the station had to be divided into two stages. As part of the first phase, it was supposed to launch the key modules, after which, as part of the second phase, start assembling the farm and installing solar panels on it.
In total, the station was supposed to have five modules: two residential and three laboratory. The new design no longer had ports for servicing satellites and MMUs.
In 1988, NASA finally officially approved the Freedom project. The creation of equipment for the station began. However, the Freedom's design was soon redesigned. The fact is that the agency's budget has been cut. As a result, NASA was left with no choice but to ditch much of its scientific equipment and solar panels, and reduce the size of the living modules. Now the station's crew was limited to four astronauts, the date of the launch of the first module was shifted to 1995. The one who received the "stub" was called Fred.
But even after all the cuts, the project still could not be reduced to the planned estimate. The situation seemed hopeless - there was nowhere to cut Freedom, and the American Congress did not want to fund the project anymore, for which significant money had already been spent, but for which not a single launch was carried out. In the summer of 1993, a vote was held on the proposal to stop further funding for the station - it lacked only one vote to be adopted.
In this situation, NASA had only one opportunity to save the project. In the fall of 1993, negotiations took place, after which it was announced that Russia was joining the project. She had to supply the base unit from the Mir-2 station (it was renamed Zvezda) and build the Zarya functional module.
Consolidation of projects was a reasonable compromise in conditions when neither one nor the other side could independently implement the project to create an orbital station. For some time the name "Alpha" was used to designate the new station, but in the end it was still officially designated the International Space Station.
In fact, the new station was a combination of a truncated version of Freedom (with a Japanese and European laboratory module) and Mira-2
The ISS design was finally approved in 1996. Assembly began in November 1998. A permanent crew appeared on board the station in 2000. Due to the Columbia disaster, the assembly of the ISS main segment was delayed until 2011. In total, this required over 40 space launches, including 35 shuttle flights.
The exact cost of building and operating the ISS is difficult to determine. Depending on how you calculate it, the total cost of the plant (including the costs of the Freedom project) is now estimated at between $ 100 billion and $ 150 billion. This is how the ISS looks like in its completed form.