Russian archaeologists have discovered ancient burials in the North Caucasus, in which people who had undergone craniotomy were buried.
According to scientists, these complex operations were done - and successfully - more than 6 thousand years ago, in the Eneolithic and Bronze Age, when not only did not there be steel scalpels, but, as it is believed, the concept of medicine was completely different than today. Who performed such complex surgical interventions and why?
With a hole in my head
The skulls of four people with characteristic holes were found by archaeologists of the expedition of the State Unitary Enterprise "Heritage" of the Stavropol Territory in four burial grounds in the framework of a joint Russian-German project to study the peoples of the Caucasus of the Bronze Age. Alas, the true names of these peoples are unknown. They had no written language, and the neighbors practically did not retain their memory. It is only known that the basis of their economy was agriculture and animal husbandry, as well as hunting and gathering. The well-being of the population, and often its survival, depended on the vagaries of the climate. And on the skulls of typical representatives of this culture, traces of a complex operation are found. The fact in itself is amazing.
The find was studied by Natalia Berezina, an employee of the Research Institute and the Museum of Anthropology of Moscow State University. "Additional holes in the skull can appear for several reasons," says the researcher, "as a result of an infectious process, malignant neoplasm, genetic abnormality, and trauma." In this case, none of the reasons fit. “The infectious process and malignant neoplasms have a fairly characteristic shape and bone reaction at the site of the hole,” continues the anthropologist. - Genetic abnormalities are usually very clearly localized. After injury, characteristic fragments and cracking remain on the skull. In this case, there is nothing of the kind, but there are even, neat holes."
And in all four cases, they were located approximately on the same area of the skull - on the sagittal suture connecting the right and left parietal bones. The site for the operation was chosen, in the opinion of modern experts, not the easiest and safest. “In the area of the sagittal suture, powerful currents of blood vessels come very close to the bone tissue,” says Natalia Berezina. "If you touch a vessel, it is almost impossible to stop the bleeding."
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That is, the slightest mistake of the surgeon, and the patient would face imminent death from cerebral hemorrhage. Scientists were amazed that three out of four people who underwent a complex operation survived, and two later lived for a long time and died definitely not from trepanation and possible complications. So, during the operation or shortly after it, only a man of 40-49 years old died. Another woman, whose age scientists have estimated at 25-39 years, underwent surgery and lived for at least another week. Two men could survive for years after surgery, as indicated by the degree of bone healing.
After examining the holes under a microscope, the anthropologist Berezina was able to describe in detail how they were made. All skulls show traces of grooves made at the very beginning of the operation, during scalping. Further, the traces of a knife were observed already in the very bone of the skull. As the anthropologist suggests, the cuts were made in the direction from the forehead to the back of the head, while the traces of the entry and exit of the knife from the bone are clearly visible. The skulls, as the study shows, were cut in an arc on both sides until they reached the dura mater. This was done with the help of a very sharp tool - a knife made of silicon or obsidian, because at the time to which scientists attributed the remains, there was not only steel, but even iron. The Bronze Age stood in the yard, the 5th millennium BC, but bronze as a material too soft was not suitable for such operations.
The hole sizes are impressive. They were different for each individual, but on average they were 30 by 40 millimeters, which is comparable to the size of a passport photo. And on two turtles, traces of two holes were found at once, made almost simultaneously. Moreover, one, as it is believed, was the main one, was approximately two to three times more than the second. Judging by the complexity of the operations and their success, they were outstanding. “We should not underestimate the skills and knowledge of surgeons of that time,” notes Maria Mednikova, a leading researcher at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences.
In addition, it is possible that ancient people were much more enduring than us and trepanations were generally done by them without the use of anesthesia. As Natalia Berezina says, the trepanned could be tied, while she especially notes that this operation is not as painful as it might seem: “The pain occurs only when scalping, cutting off the skin, and there are no nerve endings in the brain that transmit pain”. It is possible that during the operations local antiseptics were used - various resins, ash and plants.
Apparently, people deliberately went to such manipulations with their heads. But for what purpose?
Connected
Natalia Berezina argues that the holes were not cut due to trauma or illness, such as hypertension. “No specific marks, which can be interpreted as traces of high pressure, have been found on the examined skulls,” the anthropologist said confidently. In addition, at that time there were no X-rays or tomographs that would help diagnose tumors. It turns out that there was no medical indication for opening the skulls. Berezina cautiously assumes the ritual nature of trepanation. There are several assumptions regarding the sacred meaning of this action.
People marked with a hole in their heads could be ministers of certain cults, and the trail from the operation demonstrated their belonging to a special class. “Subconsciously, people in ancient times tried to transfer their own anatomy to the structure of the universe,” says Maria Mednikova. - And when people did something with their own bodies, they believed that they were changing the world around them and creating a new entity. For example, for many peoples, the sky was directly connected with the head. By changing it, they showed thereby that they influence the main thing - the sky, which presented them with the most riddles, troubles and at the same time good”.
However, in ancient times it was not enough to change your appearance so that others began to consider a person different. It was necessary to stand out in behavior, the ability to enter special states, to communicate with higher forces - to be connected between heaven and earth. Kamlania and prayer appeals to the spirits were available to the elite, who had the ability to correct the psycho-emotional state of the participants in the ceremony. But these rituals demanded special "transformations" from the people conducting them. Historians are well aware of the cases of the use of various psychotropic substances, mushrooms, herbs and infusions. It is possible that craniotomy was on a par with similar practices of changing consciousness. And experts do not deny that it could affect not only the image of a person, but also his inner world, changing the psyche.
According to Yuri Soshin, neurosurgeon at the Botkin City Clinical Hospital, “epilepsy can be a consequence of trepanation, which sometimes causes hallucinations in complex forms.” Today epilepsy is considered a dangerous disease, and among the ancient peoples, people suffering from it were considered God's chosen ones. Many believed that, in seizures, the elect were able to communicate with spirits and heaven. It cannot be ruled out that the lands of the modern Stavropol Territory were once populated by peoples who believed in such exclusivity.
Ancient skull of the Inca culture with traces of trepanation
Maria Mednikova believes that the practice of trepanation began sometime after observing people who received traumatic brain injuries against their will, provoking a change in human consciousness and behavior. These were seen as examples of the “divine madness” so important in religious and magical rites. Later, people began to deliberately carry out operations in order to promote the emergence of new properties and qualities in healthy, but chosen for special magical practices. It remains only to assume what prerequisites could serve in the selection of this or that person for trepanation. Perhaps these were representatives of special estates or families, carrying on themselves such an important role of priests in ancient tribes.
Only one thing is certain: the ancient doctors, about whom there is no information, knew well how the psyche changes during these complex operations, and they did them so skillfully that some modern surgeons are amazed at this skill.
Opinions
Maria Dobrovolskaya, Doctor of Historical Sciences, Leading Researcher at the Institute of Archeology of the Russian Academy of Sciences:
- The earliest such operations are known from the Stone Age, that is, they were carried out more than 20 thousand years ago, during the Ice Age. Subsequently, the practice of trepanning was also widespread - for example, during the Mesolithic era in the Dnieper region, in Western Europe, in the Balkans. All in all, this is a powerful human tradition. There is a universal archetype of trepanning. The need to carry out such operations arose regardless of the territory and culture. As for their goals, there are very extensive and varied discussions on this issue.
Trepanations themselves are different. For example, blinds simply left a mark on the skull. In this case, only the upper part of the bone was removed, which may have been used as an amulet. That is, in this way they marked a remarkable person with some sign. Some trepanations were used for medicinal purposes, but in ancient times, in healing, the scientific and practical aspects were very closely related to cult practice, with the influence of divine forces on human health. Therefore, it is very difficult to clearly define in the discussion why trepanations were done - for cult or medical purposes.
Kathleen Taylor, Researcher, Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Fellow, Institute for the Study of Nutrition, Brain and Behavior:
- Since the time of Hippocrates, trepanation has indeed been done for patients with mental illness. For example, to remove the so-called evil spirit in patients with convulsive syndrome. If a person suffered from epilepsy syndrome, it was believed that the cause was inside him, and above all in the head. Such an operation can affect the psyche. There is even such a thing as trepanned disease. If the defect is large, then the influence of atmospheric pressure on the state inside the skull appears. Normally, it depends on the position of the body, but it is compensated by the flow of blood, the so-called compliance of the brain - compliance with intracranial changes. With trepanation - external exposure - the compliance changes. The occurrence of the so-called adhesive processes is possible - the formation of coarse connective tissue scars. This manifests itself in a violation of a person's self-esteem,headaches, weather dependence, mood changes.