The reign of Justinian the Great (527-565) was glorified for remarkable deeds. Two famous generals, Belisarius and Narses, conquered him in the west of the kingdoms of Vandal and Ostrogothic. The struggle was more difficult in the east, where the empire suffered from the attacks of the Bulgarians and Persians. Wars with the Persians continued intermittently for almost the entire reign of Justinian; At that time, the famous Khosrov I Anushirvan (the Just, 531-579) stood at the head of the Persian monarchy, and only the skillful actions of Belisarius saved the eastern provinces of the empire from the Persian conquest.
The sudden invasions of the barbarian peoples living beyond the Danube, Justinian tried to prevent the construction of fortresses and peace treaties, which were accompanied by rich gifts. He stretched along the Danube border a chain of more than eighty fortified places, equipped with garrisons. But these measures did not help much: almost every year, different hordes, made up mainly of the Hunnic, or East Slavic, tribes broke through this chain of fortifications and devastated the Balkan Peninsula, sometimes reaching the very walls of Constantinople.
Within the empire, the reign of Justinian, especially in the early years, was troubled by intense unrest over church disputes. Of the dogmatic issues that worried Byzantium in the 5th and 6th centuries, the heresy of the Monophysites, who recognized one divine nature in Jesus Christ, was especially noteworthy. At the Council of Chalcedon (451), this heresy was condemned and it was decided to recognize in Christ the two natures (divine and human) unmerged and inseparable. The Monophisites, however, did not agree with the Orthodox; subsequently they made up their own special confession in Egypt, Syria and Armenia. In the 6th century, the heresy of the Monophysites arose, who recognized one divine will in Christ, to which the parties of the circus also joined. In Constantinople, as well as in Rome, the people passionately loved circus shows, especially running. Chariot keepers and charioteerswho ruled horses, differed from their rivals in the special color of their dress, they tried to gain patrons from the audience, especially from noble youth. Thus, circus parties arose, named after colors; the most significant parties were the Green (Prasin) and Blue (Veneti), which were strongly at odds with each other.
Justinian's wife was Theodora, a woman of low birth, known in her youth for a vicious life, but very beautiful, intelligent and determined. She was formerly a poor actress and found a blue party in her destiny, while the greens repulsed her with contempt. Having become an empress, Theodora, of course, began to patronize the blue and won over the emperor to their side, and the greens were persecuted, especially since they joined the heresy of the Monophysites; the blue party was considered Orthodox. This enmity between the parties was accompanied by frequent unrest, fights and murders.
In 532, Justinian celebrated his accession to the throne with great games in the circus. The Greens, annoyed by the government's persecution, retired in the midst of the rifts and rioted the streets; the blue, also dissatisfied with the behavior of the emperor, in the majority joined their opponents. For five days, the rebels dominated the capital and even proclaimed another emperor; the troops hesitated. Justinian already wanted to board a ship and flee from Constantinople, but the proud, energetic Theodora rebelled against his intention and convinced her husband that it was better to die with dignity than to indulge in a shameful flight. Thanks to her, decisive measures were taken. Belisarius gathered a handful of his loyal veterans and suddenly surrounded the hippodrome, where the rebellious people continued to amuse themselves with rushing along with the new emperor Hypatius; there was a terrible battle,and the rebellion was pacified. (He is known as "Nika!" - Win! This word was the slogan of the rebels.)
But the reign of Justinian left its mark on history mainly by legislative activity, under him the famous collection of Roman laws "Code of Civil Law" (Corpus juris civilis) was published. This "Code" subsequently served as a model and the most important source for European legislation and in general had a tremendous impact on the development of the European science of law. The work on codification was carried out by several commissions of jurists under the leadership of the minister and favorite of Justinian, Tribonian, who had extensive scholarship, but did not differ in strict rules and tarnished himself with extortion.
The "Code of Civil Law" was composed of four sections: 1. Laws and decrees of the Roman emperors, collected in 529 in twelve books under the title "Codex Justinian" (Codex Justinianeus);
A collection of scholarly excerpts from the writings of the most famous Roman jurists, published in fifty books under the Latin name "Digesta" and the Greek <. and received the force of laws in 533;
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The Institutiones, published in four books in 533, and intended to serve as a guide in the major law schools organized in Constantinople, Berit and Rome; 4. A collection of decrees of Justinian himself, issued after the promulgation of his code: this collection is called Novellae "(Novellae Constitutiones); they were published for the most part in Greek, and in the collection are placed in a Latin translation. The use of Justinian's "Code" in the Byzantine Empire was rather artificial, since most of the Roman laws and their interpretations no longer corresponded to the conditions of this empire. Therefore, even under Justinian, some lawyers began to make extracts from the Svod, alterations and reinterpretations, adapting them to the use of contemporaries; this work continued under the following emperors. Thus,Justinian's "Collection" has come down to us not in its original form, but in these later extracts and alterations. The preservation and transfer of the "Code" to new European peoples (through many manuscript collections) did not belong to Byzantium itself, but to Italy, where ancient Roman law was preserved in its purest form, and therefore, when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation in it, it found there more lively application than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the holy fathers was compiled: decisions of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)but in these later extracts and alterations. The preservation and transfer of the "Code" to new European peoples (through many manuscript collections) did not belong to Byzantium itself, but to Italy, where ancient Roman law was preserved in its purest form, and therefore, when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation in it, it found there more lively application than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the holy fathers was compiled: decisions of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)but in these later extracts and alterations. The preservation and transfer of the "Code" to new European peoples (through many manuscript collections) did not belong to Byzantium itself, but to Italy, where ancient Roman law was preserved in its purest form, and therefore, when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation in it, it found there more lively application than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the holy fathers was compiled: decisions of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)The preservation and transfer of the "Code" to new European peoples (through many manuscript collections) did not belong to Byzantium itself, but to Italy, where ancient Roman law was preserved in its purest form, and therefore, when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation in it, it found there more lively application than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the Holy Fathers was compiled: the decrees of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)The preservation and transfer of the "Code" to new European peoples (through many manuscript collections) did not belong to Byzantium itself, but to Italy, where ancient Roman law was preserved in its purest form, and therefore, when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation in it, it found there more lively application than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the holy fathers was compiled: decisions of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation there, it found a more vivid application there than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the Holy Fathers was compiled: the decrees of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)when Justinian, having conquered Italy, introduced his legislation there, it found a more vivid application there than in Byzantium. Almost at the same time as the creation of Justinian's "Code of Civil Law", a systematic collection of the rules of the holy fathers was compiled: decisions of church councils and imperial decrees related to church affairs. This collection, subsequently supplemented several times, was named "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)subsequently supplemented several times, it received the name "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)subsequently supplemented several times, it received the name "Nomokanon". (The Byzantine "Nomokanon" had an important influence on the structure of the Russian Church.)
Justinian also marked his reign with extensive construction: he erected many temples, palaces, almshouses, aqueducts, border fortresses and others. The most famous of his buildings is the magnificent St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople; up to ten thousand people worked on it for six years under the guidance of the architect Anfimy. By laying roads and building bridges, Justinian greatly facilitated the trade and industrial movement in his empire. Sericulture first began in Europe under him; thanks to the cunning of two monks: they brought silkworm eggs from the East to Constantinople, which they hid in their hollow travel staffs.
Along with the outward splendor of Justinian's reign, Byzantine historians also point to the negative aspects of his reign, especially his extraordinary lust for power and the desire to subordinate everything in the state to his will; in ecclesiastical affairs, he also sought absolute power. He closed the famous Athens Academy, after which the mentors of philosophy - the last representatives of Neoplatonism, Simplicius and Damascius, left Athens and moved to Persia under the patronage of Shah Khosrov I. Justinian also abolished the consular title, with which the memory of the republican institutions of Rome was still connected. His penchant for luxury and extravagance, his numerous wars and expensive buildings swallowed up huge amounts of money, so that the burden of taxes and duties was constantly increasing; landowners often gave up their land,because they were unable to meet the requirements of the state treasury. Justinian was available to the suggestions of court flatterers and looked suspiciously at people who were elevated in popular opinion by the merits and nobility of their character. The famous Belisarius also experienced his ingratitude.
The last years of Justinian's reign were overshadowed by the terrible invasion of the Slavs of the Bulgarian hordes, who, under the leadership of Prince Zabergan, devastated Thrace and appeared under the very walls of Byzantium. In such constrained circumstances, the emperor once again turned to Belisarius, who for several years had lived modestly in a distance, almost forgotten by his contemporaries. The aged hero with youthful energy became the head of the few troops defending the capital and successfully repelled the barbarians. The signs of love and gratitude shown to him by the people on his return to the capital aroused displeasure in the suspicious Justinian. A conspiracy against the emperor was soon discovered; one of the conspirators during the torture testified that he acted on the secret orders of Belisarius. This was enough to deprive the honored commander of his honorary titles, property and throw him in prison. A few months later, his innocence was discovered, and his freedom, titles and part of the property were returned to him, but the grief he experienced accelerated his death: he went to the grave shortly before the death of Justinian himself (who died eighty-three years, after a thirty-eight year reign). The legend that Belisarius was deprived of sight and, led by a boy, begged for alms is an invention of later times.
The main source for the study of Justinian's reign are the works of the Byzantine historian Procopius, who was secretary under Belisarius and accompanied him on campaigns. As an eyewitness, he described the wars of Belisarius: Persian, Vandal and Gothic. Here and in some of his other works
depicts the brilliant side of Justinian's reign. In addition, he left a book known as The Secret History, where, on the contrary, the personality of Justinian and especially his wife Theodora is outlined in too dark colors and where the author, with obvious preference, tries to explain many important events by court intrigues and other reasons hidden from the people. But, in any case, the government centralization, reinforced by the / ponds of Justinian, greatly strengthened the state building of the Byzantine Empire.
Ilovaiskiy D. I.