The Trebizond Empire emerged as an independent state in 1204 simultaneously with the tragic event for the entire Byzantine world - the capture of Constantinople by the crusaders. The formation of the Trebizond Empire was the result of a long process of decentralization of Byzantium, a gradual increase in separatist aspirations in the former Byzantine fem of Chaldia, inhabited by Greeks, Lazes and Armenians. In fact, already from the end of the 11th - the first half of the 12th century, a semi-independent feudal principality existed on Pontus, ruled by the Gavre-Taronite dynasty.
The process of decentralization was based on a whole set of socio-economic contradictions characteristic of both Byzantium in general and Pontus in particular. Among the most important of them is the discrepancy between the interests of the trade and artisan population of Constantinople and other Byzantine emporian cities, in our case, Trebizond. The cities of Pontus sought to free themselves from the increasingly shy and petty financial and administrative tutelage of the Byzantine capital, which in every possible way suppressed local trade and entrepreneurship.
On the other hand, this process was caused by the tendency of local dinats to expand political rights (it is characteristic that the largest Trebizond feudal families were almost completely removed from important posts in Constantinople in the XII - early XIII centuries). Finally, the forces of decentralization also had a foothold among the peasantry, who suffered from constant attacks by the Seljuks at a time when the central government was practically unable to provide military assistance. The hope remained with the local dinats and their troops. The popularity of Le Havre was precisely due to their success in repelling external danger.
However, under the conditions of the "Komnenian restoration", the forces of decentralization were still struggling to make their way. Only the ultimate weakening of Byzantium at the end of the XII - the beginning of the XIII century. and a favorable combination of external and internal factors led to the completion of the isolation of Pontus and the formation of the Trebizond Empire. An important role in the creation of the new state was played by the Georgian kingdom of Tamara, which, with its foreign policy activity, successful struggle against the Seljuks and direct military assistance, contributed to the consolidation of the Pontic region around Trebizond. The first rulers of the Trebizond Empire were the grandchildren of the Byzantine emperor Andronicus I Komnenos (1183-1185), Emperor Alexei I (1204-1222) and his brother, the commander David, who took the loud title of the Great Comnenos.
The main core of the Trebizond state was the Pontus region, which stretched along the southeastern coast of the Black Sea from Batumi to Sinop. By its geographic conditions, this region of Asia Minor differed significantly from its continental regions. The coastal strip is, as it were, isolated from the Armenian and Anatolian plateaus by a ridge of mountains, reaching 2-3.5 thousand meters above sea level. Three mountain ranges - Zigana Daglari, Demir Dag and Tatos Daglari - blocked the path from south to north. Only a few passes (the most important of them was the Zigan Pass - the Pontic Gate) and the roads along the valleys of the Filabonitis (Harshit), Lycius (Kelkit) and Iris (Yeshil Irmak) rivers connected the Trebizond Empire with the interior regions of Anatolia. Sometimes the sea roads leading to the Crimea and Constantinople were more reliable.
Considering the Pontus region as a whole, from the sea coast in the north to the Kelkit and Chorokh (Akampsis) rivers in the south, we can conditionally distinguish three geographic and climatic zones. The first of them is a coastal strip with a mild subtropical climate, where the average temperature of the coldest month is + 7.5 °, and the warmest + 22.5 °. In the Trapezund area, an average of 875 mm of precipitation falls per year, while in Batumi, their amount rises sharply, reaching 2500 mm per year. The second zone was made up of a strip of high-mountain pastures (yayl) and, finally, to the south, behind the passes, an arid plateau (third zone) opened up, devoid of significant vegetation, with sharp temperature changes between winter and summer, with all the signs of a typical continental climate. In the western regions of the empire, in a number of places the mountains sloped steeply down to the sea,minimizing the coastal zone. The main population of the Trebizond Empire lived within the first and partly the second zone, which, as it were, separated the sedentary farmers, Greeks and Lazes, from the nomadic and semi-nomadic Muslim population, herders. This division became especially evident in the second half of the 13th century, after the fall of the Iconium Sultanate and the settling of the Turkmens on the borders of the Trebizond Empire, mainly in the third zone. A long struggle for the possession of high-mountainous pastures unfolded, in which not only the local population, but also the regular troops of the Trebizond Empire and its neighbors were sometimes involved.pastoralists. This division became especially evident in the second half of the 13th century, after the fall of the Iconium Sultanate and the settling of the Turkmens on the borders of the Trebizond Empire, mainly in the third zone. A long struggle for the possession of high-mountainous pastures unfolded, in which not only the local population was sometimes involved, but also the regular troops of the Trebizond Empire and its neighbors.pastoralists. This division became especially evident in the second half of the 13th century, after the fall of the Iconium Sultanate and the settling of the Turkmens on the borders of the Trebizond Empire, mainly in the third zone. A long struggle for the possession of high-mountainous pastures unfolded, in which not only the local population was sometimes involved, but also the regular troops of the Trebizond Empire and its neighbors.
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Since the XIV century, the process of formation of the Turkmen emirates gradually begins - first on the periphery of the Trebizond empire, and then on its very territory. In the western regions - Janik and Khalivia - the emirates of Tajeddinogullari and Emirogullari are formed, to the east the core of the Ak-Koyunlu state appears. The Turkmens seize the Trebizond fortresses - Hoarfrost, Limniya and others - and make them their capitals. Often, the possessions of the new emirs were interspersed in the Trebizond territory, with moving and changing borders. Emperors of Trebizond are not always
but could interfere with the process of settling the Turkmens on their territory; the situation became especially complicated during and after the civil war (1340-1355), which weakened the economy and the army of the state. Therefore, the Trebizond sovereigns often recognized these acquisitions of the Turkmen de facto where they could not prevent them, however, they strove for the newly-minted emirs to become allies, or even vassals of the emperor and considered him their supreme sy
grain. For this purpose, dynastic marriages were widely used, when the emirs received the beautiful Trebizond princesses as wives.
According to A. Brayer's correct observation, from the XIV century the Trebizond emperors played a sort of double role: the Byzantine basileus for their Greek and Laz subjects and the Melik Janik for the subordinate Muslim emirs.
The territorial cephalothe led to the fact that the state borders were difficult to define; and it is hardly legitimate to talk about such boundaries in the modern sense of the word. In the XIII-XV centuries. and the defense system itself was not built on the principle of defended borders, but on the creation of a system of fortified areas-bands, located mainly along the rivers and with the goal of blocking the enemy's access to the first, main, zone and its centers. The southern border as such was subject to significant fluctuations within the second and third zones. For example, in the XIV-XV centuries. often the possessions of the Trebizond emperors in the south ended at a distance of one or two days of equestrian passage from Trebizond, while architectural and epigraphic monuments of Trebizond origin of the second half of the XIII century are found in Ispir,Bayburt and even Erzinjan (Arsinge). The uncertainty of the borders of the Trebizond empire is also connected with the fact that quite often it included nominally certain territories, the rulers of which recognized vassal dependence on the Trebizond emperor. In the second half of the 13th - the first half of the 15th century, such relations linked the Trebizond Empire with Guria and, possibly, with Samtskhe (Western Georgia). In the XIV century, the rulers of Trebizond actually disposed of the cathedral of the Metropolitan of Alania. Of course, the real subordination of the rulers was different - from simple recognition of the authority of the Great Comnenos to the payment of annual taxes and the appointment of the necessary auxiliary units. According to the second principle, in particular, the empire's relations with Kherson and the Gothic climates (the southern coast of Crimea) were built at least until the middle of the 13th century, and possibly even later. Speaking about the conventionality of borders, it should also be noted the process of strengthening the feudal fragmentation of the Trebizond empire from the middle of the XIV century, when many large Trebizond feudal lords considered themselves practically independent from the central government, relying on their own fortresses (Kawasites, Tzanihites, Kamakhins, etc.) The borders in the west were subject to even greater fluctuations than in the south and east. In 1205-1214 / 15 the state of the Great Komnenos included the whole of Paphlagonia with the fortresses of Heraclius and Amastrida, the city of Sinop and the region of Kastamon. However, in the fall-winter of 1214/15. Paphlagonia was conquered by the Nicene emperor Theodore I Lascar (1208-1222), and Sinop was taken on November 1, 1214 by the Iconic sultan Izz ad-din Kai-Kaus (1210-1219). True, in 1254 Sinop was again annexed to the empire, but it was only possible to keep it until 1265. At the beginning of the XIV century, only the territory east of Kerasunt was under the rule of the Trebizond emperor, and Alexei II (1297-1330) had to defend this second most important city of the empire (1301). And although later, until the end of the XIV century, the Trebizond emperors in the west relied on the fortresses of Limniy and Frosty, we cannot say with certainty that the entire territory from Limniy to Kerasunt completely belonged to the Trebizond Empire. And at the beginning of the 15th century, the territory of the latter, as reported in the diary of the Spanish embassy to Timur's court in Samarkand, began near the city of Tripoli. And although later, until the end of the XIV century, the Trebizond emperors in the west relied on the fortresses of Limniy and Frosty, we cannot say with certainty that the entire territory from Limniy to Kerasunt completely belonged to the Trebizond Empire. And at the beginning of the 15th century, the territory of the latter, as reported in the diary of the Spanish embassy to Timur's court in Samarkand, began near the city of Tripoli. And although later, until the end of the XIV century, the Trebizond emperors in the west relied on the fortresses of Limniy and Frosty, we cannot say with certainty that the entire territory from Limniy to Kerasunt completely belonged to the Trebizond empire. And at the beginning of the 15th century, the territory of the latter, as reported in the diary of the Spanish embassy to Timur's court in Samarkand, began near the city of Tripoli.
The Trepezud Empire, despite its geographical remoteness, maintained ties with Moscow Russia, Novgorod and Tver. Having originated in the XIV century, they are significantly strengthened in the XV century. Russian princes provide significant assistance to the monasteries of Pontus, relations with Pontus are becoming one of the channels of communication between Russia and the Orthodox Greek world.
The spiritual life of the Trebizond Empire was supported by the monasteries famous throughout the Christian East - Sumela, Vaselon, Theoskepast and others. Trebizond was a stage on the path of pilgrims from the Russian lands, from the Crimea and Georgia to the Holy Land, to Constantinople and to Athos. But he himself was one of the centers of pilgrimage to the miraculous icons of the Mother of God, to the relics of Saints Eugene, Valerian, Canidius and Aquila, Athanasius the Wonderworker and others.
The culture of the Trebizond Empire was diverse. She was Hellenic, Byzantine in essence and appearance. But it contained elements of Eastern and Caucasian cultures that enriched it. A feature of the culture of the Trebizond Empire was its traditionalism, orientation towards more ancient examples of the Komnenos era of the XI-XII centuries. The Trebizond dynasty ascended to the Comnenos of Constantinople, the culture of their court she professed. Therefore, many innovations of the Palaeologus Renaissance, for example, were not in demand on Pontus. Trebizond at the same time became a prominent center for the study of natural sciences (astronomy, mathematics, medicine). He gave the world such outstanding thinkers as Bessarion of Nicaea, George Amirutsi, prominent theologians and rhetoricians, such as Metropolitan John (Joseph) Lazaropulus, Andrey Livadin, John Eugenicus, worked on his land. In Trebizond there were significant libraries and scriptoria, its connections with the spiritual life of Byzantium were continuous, and contacts with the monasteries of Athos, where the Trebizond monastery of Dionysios existed, were permanent. Therefore, it is no coincidence that hesychast ideas found a lively response and took root in Pontus, and he himself became one of the centers of opposition to the Uniate movement in both the XIII and XIV centuries.
The history of the Trebizond Empire, which existed from 1204 to 1461 and survived Byzantium itself for 8 years, gives the researcher a rare opportunity to turn to the study of the ways of development of the Byzantine province during the period of decentralization of the state, to understand a number of fundamental problems of the socio-economic, political and ethnic development of the Byzantine Empire and adjacent regions of the Black Sea region. Two and a half centuries of the Trebizond Empire's existence were filled with turbulent events. This small state withstood the struggle with the Seljuks (1204-1265), managed to ward off the Mongol-Tatar conquest in the middle of the 13th century, and witnessed the rise of Timur's state and the growth of the Ottomans' power. The Trebizond Empire was an intermediary in the trade between the West and the East. Italian trading settlements were founded on its territory. The key role of Trebizond in the Middle East, its importance as a political center, an important emporium, one of the main metropolises of the Byzantine Church, more than once forced the diplomats of the papal curia and the largest Western European states to pay close attention to the distant empire on Pontus. It was on the Levant that the fate of many peoples was decided, the future of the largest Italian trading republics - Venice and Genoa.
In the XIII-XV centuries. on the banks of the Pontus, the interests of the West and the East crossed. Trebizond, like Constantinople before, became a "golden bridge" through which trade, political and even cultural ties of European states with the leading powers of Western Asia were carried out. This alone emphasized the international significance of the Trebizond Empire, which was explained by a number of circumstances.
The Empire of the Great Comnenos was formed in a region where commodity-money relations reached a significant level by the 13th century, and ties with rich eastern countries were a long historical tradition. The elimination of the shy guardianship on the part of Constantinople gave room for the development of the cities of the empire, and above all Trebizond. Trebizond became the economic center not only of the empire itself, but also of a number of adjacent territories. The feudal lords of Pontus persistently sought to derive benefits from international and local trade. This was due to the fact that their land holdings, as a rule, were not particularly significant and brought relatively modest income. In addition, the constant attacks of the Turkic tribes disrupted the regular production of agricultural products, in which cereals did not have a large specific weight. Bread had to be imported in increasing quantities from outside. The foreground was the production of wine, honey, and those products that were widely exported.
On the borders of the Trebizond Empire in the XIII century. a powerful state of the Ilkhans arose, in the 15th century - the states of Timur and Uzun Hasan, opponents of the Ottomans. The papacy, large European states sought not only to maintain trade relations with these countries, but also tried to use them first in the fight against the Seljuks, and then against the Ottomans. On the banks of the Pontus, the necessary information about the events in the Middle East was also collected. From the middle of the XIII century, after the main routes of the Levantine trade moved to the north, Trebizond became more and more firmly established in its role as a trade intermediary between the West and the East, became a window from Europe to Persia with its new capitals - Tabriz and Sultania. The fall of Tana in 1395 provided Trebizond with the place of the first Black Sea emporium for Venice and the second most important (after Kaffa) trade center and fondaco for Genoa.
Resisting the threat of the Ottoman conquest became the main task of the empire in the late 14th - mid-15th centuries. In search of protection, the Great Comnenes turn to Timur and Timurids, recognizing their suzerainty at the beginning of the 15th century, and then in 1459 establish a strong dynastic alliance with the powerful ruler Ak-Kuyunlu Uzun-Hasan. They find themselves at the center of the West's attempts to create an anti-Ottoman coalition in the East. Perhaps all this hastened the denouement and in August 1461 Sultan Mehmed ΙΙ put an end to the existence of the last Byzantine empire. Nevertheless, the death of the empire did not mark the end of Pontic Hellenism, which existed in the Black Sea region until the beginning of the century, despite the obvious successes of Turkization and Islamization of the region, especially from the VI and XVII centuries.
* from the book Trebizond Empire and Western European States in the XIII-XV centuries. MSU 1981
Author: S. P. Karpov