Not a single major holiday in ancient Rome was complete without bloodshed. This, of course, is not about mass riots, but about gladiatorial games that were regularly organized to entertain the citizens of the Eternal City. Gladiators fought and died for the amusement of the crowd. True, this often happened in a completely different way from what we are used to presenting from books and films.
Retiarius, Murmillon, Secutor, Samnite, Thracian … All these are the names of different types of gladiators who fought for centuries in arenas throughout the Roman Republic and then the Empire. These skillful warriors, who fought for the entertainment of others, became one of the most famous symbols of Ancient Rome to the general public. Their lives are surrounded by so many legends that it is difficult to make out where the truth is and where it is not. In addition, new and new facts constantly appear that make it possible to look at gladiator fights from a completely different angle.
Etruscan heritage
Riddles appear from the very beginning: where did the ancient Romans have a passion for such cruel entertainment? One of the most common points of view is that this is an element of the funeral rite, borrowed from the Etruscans (like many other things in Roman culture). It is often possible to find the statement that the Etruscans did not have any data on such rituals. This is not entirely true. In the writings of the ancient Greek writer Athenaeus, it is mentioned that it was the Etruscans who brought the custom of arranging gladiatorial duels in funerals to the south of Italy. True, Athenaeus lived quite late - at the turn of the 2nd and 3rd centuries, that is, he wrote about the events of 500 years ago. However, scientists have no doubts that human sacrifices were actively used by the Etruscans. The only question is whether they took the form of a fight to the death.
On the frescoes from Etruscan tombs, you can often see images of athletes' competitions, which accompanied the funeral rite. They included horse racing and wrestling. The winner, by the way, was crowned with a laurel wreath. A similar tradition was at the funeral of the Greeks. She later migrated to the Olympic Games (as well as other major sporting events of antiquity). It is possible that sports fights alternated with bloody fights. The deceased became a human sacrifice to the gods, in memory of whom the funeral was consulted.
According to another version, the Etruscans had nothing to do with it, and representatives of the tribes living in the Italian Campania were the first to arrange gladiator fights at the commemoration. And the Romans adopted the custom from them. The first funerals, accompanied by gladiatorial fights, were recorded in ancient Rome in 264 BC. A certain Decimus Junius organized a battle of three pairs of fighters in memory of his father Brutus Pere.
Over time, the battles, combined with the funeral, were called "muner" and began to be arranged more and more magnificently. In 174 BC, the future consul Titus Quinctius Flamininus arranged a three-day game, in which 74 gladiators took part.
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Spectacles for the crowd
The traditions of the organization of the Muner became more and more complicated. Group battles were added to simple one-on-one fights. Then - fights with wild animals, called "venazio". This was done by special types of fighters: venators (they mainly showed tricks with animals, without engaging in close combat with them) and bestiaries (who fought to the death). By the way, the famous Spanish bullfight, which has survived to this day, originates precisely in the Roman venazios.
Meanwhile, the Roman Republic expanded its borders and conquered more and more new territories. So on the gladiatorial arenas appeared fighters representing the types of armor and weapons of the barbarian peoples conquered by Rome (the most famous are the Samnites and Thracians). So the audience could simultaneously see the exotic and feel the glory of the invincible Roman weapon.
During the heyday of the republic, it was already unthinkable to imagine the funeral of a noble person, not accompanied by public speeches of gladiators. The tradition has survived even after Rome became an empire. True, this was no longer perceived as a ceremony, but simply as entertainment. Citizens were so accustomed to this that they perceived the too modest funeral of a public person as an insult to public morals.
The great Roman historian Suetonius describes a case when in the city of Pollentia in northern Italy, social unrest broke out so strong that Emperor Tiberius had to send troops there! The reason for the rebellion was the refusal of the heirs of the deceased centurion to arrange gladiatorial games. Outraged citizens attacked the house of the deceased, seized his body and refused to hand him over to his heirs until they "show respect for tradition." In this situation, the heirs can only sympathize - the organization of the games required colossal spending.
Valuable personnel
The further the gladiatorial games deviated from the rite, turning into a show, the more the life of gladiators was valued. In a ritual battle, a sacrifice must have been made. Now only as much blood could be shed as was required for the amusement of the crowd. Gladiators became too expensive for their masters to afford to lose fighters in every fight. After all, the gladiator needed to be well fed, trained, and provided with highly qualified medical care (which most of those who sat in the stands of the amphitheaters could not even dream of).
According to modern historians, only about 10% of gladiators ended their lives in the arena. The rest, of course, received many wounds, but they lived much better than the urban plebs. During the heyday of the Roman Empire, for just one victory, a gladiator received an amount equal to the salary of a Roman soldier for a year! And the winner in the arena twice already had the right to live in a separate room.
This led to the fact that not only slaves, but also free citizens of Rome became gladiators. Yes, at the same time they were subjected to public censure and ridicule. Cicero, for example, called gladiators "vicious people and barbarians." But on the other hand, they could get a very high quality of life and provide for their family well. According to some estimates, out of every 10 gladiators at least two were free citizens.
Representatives of noble families also entered the arena! This was considered a shame and loss of reputation, but it could help, for example, get out of debt. Emperors sometimes even had to issue decrees prohibiting the children of senators from becoming gladiators.
Although the emperor Commodus, notorious for his cruel and licentious disposition, was fond of gladiatorial games so much that he himself did not disdain to enter the arena. There he spent 735 battles and won all of them. True, according to some reports, his rivals had no chance, since they were given not steel, but lead weapons.
Beautiful floor in the arena
Contrary to traditional beliefs, not only men, but also women fought in the arena. This is evidenced by both documents and a few images. It is not known exactly when women gladiators appeared, but most of the mentions of them date back to the reign of the emperors Nero (54-68 years) and Domitian (81-96 years).
The topic of women gladiators is still very poorly studied. Ancient authors, as a rule, wrote about them in order to condemn licentiousness, and not to describe their exploits. For example, as the famous Roman poet Juvenal wrote about women gladiators in his satirical poems:
Apparently, at first, women appeared in the arena during massive battles. They got the role of fighters who did not engage in close combat. Such, for example, as the Essedarii - a gladiator armed with a bow and standing on a chariot. However, over time, female gladiators began to fight on a par with men. True, now it is only among themselves - not a single fact about the battles of opposite-sex fighters has reached us.
Like men, female gladiators fought wearing a minimum of armor and equipment. At the same time, they were forbidden to perform half-naked. The chest was covered with a leather strip called "strophes".
A woman in ancient Rome did not have so many rights. So for many, apparently, entering the arena was the only way to demonstrate their strength and independence. That is why the daughters of noble families often became gladiators. At the beginning of the 1st century, several decrees were issued prohibiting the admission of too young women and men into gladiators (at first the age threshold was set at 25, then reduced to 20). A complete ban on the participation of women in gladiatorial games was issued by the emperor Septimius Severus in 200. However, apparently, it was not strictly observed, and battles with the participation of women were carried out in the 3rd century.
On land and on water
Another little-known fact about gladiator games is water battles. The Romans called them navmachia. They occupied a special place and were considered the most luxurious form of mass entertainment. Indeed, organizing such a show required spending a huge amount of money and effort.
The first known major navmachia took place in 46 BC. It was arranged by order of Gaius Julius Caesar. For this, right in the middle of Rome, on the Champ de Mars, a real man-made lake was dug. The battle was attended by 16 galleys, which accommodated about 2 thousand gladiators!
As on land, real battles were sometimes staged on the water. Moreover, it was not necessarily a matter of recalling only the victories of Rome. For example, after Caesar, navmachia took place, imitating the battle of Salamis - the great victory of the Greek fleet over the Persians, won in 480 BC. In this performance, 24 warships and 3 thousand gladiators were involved!
The most grandiose navmachia of ancient Rome was arranged by the emperor Claudius in the middle of the 1st century. For her they used the real Lake Fucino, not far from Rome. The audience settled down on the surrounding hills, from which they could clearly see what was happening on the water. This natural "amphitheater" has accommodated about half a million people! On the shores of the lake itself, legionnaires were posted in case the participants in the performance decided to rebel. Several more legions stood near the site of the navmachia.
50 ships were launched. The total number of gladiators involved has reached 20 thousand. Among them were not only professional fighters, but also criminals sentenced to death. The battle turned out to be truly grandiose. True, the crews of several galleys conspired among themselves and tried to evade the battle, hoping that no one would notice this in the general confusion. Alas, they were executed for their "cowardice and effeminacy" after the end of the navmachia. And all those who fought to the death and survived were granted freedom (including criminals).
By the way, European emperors later tried to imitate the ancient Romans. Something similar to the Naumachians was organized by the French king Henry II near Rouen in 1550 and Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807 in Milan. However, ancient customs by that time were already far in the past, and it did not occur to the monarchs to force people to kill each other for the sake of amusement. Their navmachias were more like performances or demonstrative maneuvers. As well as the famous "amusing battles" arranged by Peter the Great.
Victor BANEV
Monk's feat
Gladiator games were officially banned in 404 by Emperor Honorius. The reason for this was a tragic event. During the next performance, a Christian monk named Telemachus entered the arena and demanded an immediate end to the bloodshed. The audience, eager to enjoy their favorite show, pounced on him and beat him to death. True, many believe that the misfortune with Telemachus was only a pretext. In fact, the emperor was more worried about the existence of independent gladiatorial schools as such. After all, these were essentially small private armies that could (and were) hired, for example, to intimidate competitors in political struggles.
Nevertheless, gladiatorial games existed underground in the Western Roman Empire until at least 440. And in the east of the empire - even longer. At least in Byzantium, the last law prohibiting gladiator fights dates back to 681!